3D Reference Research Articles

In vivo noninvasive three-dimensional (3D) assessment of microwave thermal ablation zone using non-contrast-enhanced x-ray CT.

To develop an image processing methodology for noninvasive three-dimensional (3D) quantification of microwave thermal ablation zones in vivo using x-ray computed tomography (CT) imaging without injection of a contrast enhancing material. Six microwave (MW) thermal ablation procedures were performed in three pigs. The ablations were performed with a constant heating duration of 8min and power level of 30W. During the procedure images from sixty 1mm thick slices were acquired every 30s. At the end of all ablation procedures for each pig, a contrast-enhanced scan was acquired for reference. Special algorithms for addressing challenges stemming from the 3D in vivo setup and processing the acquired images were prepared. The algorithms first rearranged the data to account for the oblique needle orientation and for breathing motion. Then, the gray level variance changes were analyzed, and optical flow analysis was applied to the treated volume in order to obtain the ablation contours and reconstruct the ablation zone in 3D. The analysis also included a special correction algorithm for eliminating artifacts caused by proximal major blood vessels and blood flow. Finally, 3D reference reconstructions from the contrast-enhanced scan were obtained for quantitative comparison. For four ablations located >3mm from a large blood vessel, the mean dice similarity coefficient (DSC) and the mean absolute radial discrepancy between the contours obtained from the reference contrast-enhanced images and the contours produced by the algorithm were 0.82±0.03 and 1.92±1.47mm, respectively. In two cases of ablation adjacent to large blood vessels, the average DSC and discrepancy were: 0.67±0.6 and 2.96±2.15mm, respectively. The addition of the special correction algorithm utilizing blood vessels mapping improved the mean DSC and the mean absolute discrepancy to 0.85±0.02 and 1.19±1.00mm, respectively. The developed algorithms provide highly accurate detailed contours in vivo (average error<2.5mm) and cope well with the challenges listed above. Clinical implementation of the developed methodology could potentially provide real time noninvasive 3D accurate monitoring of MW thermal ablation in-vivo, provided that the radiation dose can be reduced.

Nutil: A Pre- and Post-processing Toolbox for Histological Rodent Brain Section Images.

With recent technological advances in microscopy and image acquisition of tissue sections, further developments of tools are required for viewing, transforming, and analyzing the ever-increasing amounts of high-resolution data produced. In the field of neuroscience, histological images of whole rodent brain sections are commonly used for investigating brain connections as well as cellular and molecular organization in the normal and diseased brain, but present a problem for the typical neuroscientist with no or limited programming experience in terms of the pre- and post-processing steps needed for analysis. To meet this need we have designed Nutil, an open access and stand-alone executable software that enables automated transformations, post-processing, and analyses of 2D section images using multi-core processing (OpenMP). The software is written in C++ for efficiency, and provides the user with a clean and easy graphical user interface for specifying the input and output parameters. Nutil currently contains four separate tools: (1) A transformation toolchain named “Transform” that allows for rotation, mirroring and scaling, resizing, and renaming of very large tiled tiff images. (2) “TiffCreator” enables the generation of tiled TIFF images from other image formats such as PNG and JPEG. (3) A “Resize” tool completes the preprocessing toolset and allows downscaling of PNG and JPEG images with output in PNG format. (4) The fourth tool is a post-processing method called “Quantifier” that enables the quantification of segmented objects in the context of regions defined by brain atlas maps generated with the QuickNII software based on a 3D reference atlas (mouse or rat). The output consists of a set of report files, point cloud coordinate files for visualization in reference atlas space, and reference atlas images superimposed with color-coded objects. The Nutil software is made available by the Human Brain Project (https://www.humanbrainproject.eu) at https://www.nitrc.org/projects/nutil/.

Deep geometric texture synthesis

Recently, deep generative adversarial networks for image generation have advanced rapidly; yet, only a small amount of research has focused on generative models for irregular structures, particularly meshes. Nonetheless, mesh generation and synthesis remains a fundamental topic in computer graphics. In this work, we propose a novel framework for synthesizing geometric textures. It learns geometric texture statistics from local neighborhoods ( i.e. , local triangular patches) of a single reference 3D model. It learns deep features on the faces of the input triangulation, which is used to subdivide and generate offsets across multiple scales, without parameterization of the reference or target mesh. Our network displaces mesh vertices in any direction ( i.e. , in the normal and tangential direction), enabling synthesis of geometric textures, which cannot be expressed by a simple 2D displacement map. Learning and synthesizing on local geometric patches enables a genus-oblivious framework, facilitating texture transfer between shapes of different genus.

A critical assessment of the potential for Structure-from-Motion photogrammetry to produce high fidelity 3D dental models.

The recent proliferation of methods of 3D model generation has enabled the development of new approaches to the analysis of dental form, function and wear. This article assesses whether Structure-from-motion (SfM) photogrammetry is capable of producing virtual 3D models of teeth of adequate quality for assessing fine scale surface details, such as dental macrowear patterns. Reference models were generated using a high resolution structured light scanner to assess the accuracy of the photogrammetric models generated. Dental gypsum models of the molar teeth of human individuals from St. Michael's Litten, Chichester, Post-medieval assemblage (n = 17) were used for 3D model generation. Photogrammetry was performed using Agisoft Metashape and reference 3D models were generated using a GOM ATOS 80 scanner. Focus stacking was explored as a method of enhancing 3D model detail. Differences between the photogrammetric and reference models were assessed using CloudCompare and the quality of the surface detail was examined quantitatively using Occlusal Fingerprint Analysis. Photogrammetric model generation was highly replicable and the tooth models produced closely approximated the overall geometry of those derived from the structured light scanner. Dental wear facet area measurements on the photogrammetric models differed significantly, however, from those derived from the structured light scanning reference models. Photogrammetry can create virtual dental models from which crude quantitative size and shape data can be obtained. Finer scale surface details are not accurately reproduced on SfM models using the methods outlined in the current article due to high levels of surface noise.

Rotor blades as curved, twisted and tapered beam-like structures subjected to large deflections

Non-prismatic beam-like structures are widespread in many engineering and science applications. Important examples include the rotor blades of wind turbines and helicopters. Their mechanical behaviour can be simulated using 3D beam models, which are computationally efficient, accurate and explicitly consider such structures’ main geometric features, the large deflection of their reference centre-line and 3D warping of their transverse cross-sections. This paper proposes a mathematical model for such structures. A variational approach and the smallness of the warping and strain fields are exploited to obtain the model. Analytical and numerical results obtained with the proposed modelling approach are presented and compared to those from nonlinear 3D-FEM simulations.

3D Cruise Trajectory Optimization Inspired by a Shortest Path Algorithm

Aircrafts require a large amount of fuel in order to generate enough power to perform a flight. That consumption causes the emission of polluting particles such as carbon dioxide, which is implicated in global warming. This paper proposes an algorithm which can provide the 3D reference trajectory that minimizes the flight costs and the fuel consumption. The proposed algorithm was conceived using the Floyd–Warshall methodology as a reference. Weather was taken into account by using forecasts provided by Weather Canada. The search space was modeled as a directional weighted graph. Fuel burn was computed using the Base of Aircraft DAta (BADA) model developed by Eurocontrol. The trajectories delivered by the developed algorithm were compared to long-haul flight plans computed by a European airliner and to as-flown trajectories obtained from Flightradar24®. The results reveal that up to 2000 kg of fuel can be reduced per flight, and flight time can be also reduced by up to 11 min.

Vision-based reconstruction of laser projection with invariant composed of points and circle on 2D reference

A vision-based reconstruction method is conducted by the point-circle invariant and the planar laser. The planar laser is coplanar to the two-dimensional (2D) reference. The combination of a circle on the 2D reference, a point on the 2D reference and a random point on the laser stripe is considered as the invariant, which is impervious to the projection from the laser plane to the image. Therefore, the reconstruction model is achieved by the invariant, which is generated from the projections of the above geometric features. The experiments are performed to verify the performance and reconstruction error of the method. The minimum error is 0.473 mm for the camera-reference distance of 600 mm, the scaleplate-projector distance of 100 mm and the reference length of 30 mm. Besides, the maximum error is 4.960 mm, for the camera-reference distance of 900 mm, the scaleplate-projector distance of 400 mm and the reference length of 120 mm. The reconstruction error means of 0.891 mm, 1.365 mm, 2.578 mm and 3.767 mm are observed with respect to the test conditions of 600–900 mm, which proves the applicability of the reconstruction method with the point-circle invariant.

DETERMINATION OF AN APPROPRIATE PROJECTION SYSTEM FOR FOREST AREAS IN TURKEY

Geometrical surfaces such as sphere and ellipsoid are considered as reference surfaces since there is no geometric shape that perfectly represents the earth when translating the earth into a map plane. Hence, on 3D reference surfaces, it is almost impossible to perfectly preserve the angle, direction and area properties and transfer them to a map plane without any deformations. The scaled topographic maps produced in our country under provision of map production regulations are conformal projections that do not preserve area properties but angle and shape properties. Area values calculated by projection coordinates cannot be considered the exact area values therefore, an area reduction is needed. Area values calculated by ignoring this situation in GIS based software do not represent the accurate area values on reference surfaces. The aim of this study is to determine the best area preserving projection for GIS applications in which area values are important. In this study, the real area values of 25 large-extent forest parcels are determined by employing the Danielsen method with geographical coordinates on ellipsoid surface. These parcels are also calculated by using the area-preserving projections available in ArcGIS software and are compared to their real area values.

Effective elastic properties and thermal conductivity of isotropic rocks containing concave pores. Application to oolitic limestones

This paper focuses on effective elastic properties, and thermal conductivity of materials constituted by an isotropic homogeneous solid matrix containing both ellipsoidal and non-ellipsoidal pores. In the frame of Effective Media Theory (EMT), property contribution tensor approach extended to non-ellipsoidal inhomogeneities are used to estimate effective elastic properties and thermal conductivity. On the basis of recent results obtained by the authors, a reference 3D shape is considered: supersphere characterised by a concavity parameter and being convex or concave. Related compliance contribution tensors verifying cubic symmetry have been characterised thanks to 3 D finite element modelling and analytical approximation formula have been derived and are used in this paper. Analysis is focussed on the effect of the parameter characterising concavity on both effective elastic coefficients and thermal conductivity. Application to isotropic porous rock with two separated classes of pores, such as oolitic limestones, is considered. Numerical results are presented for a reference oolitic rock, Lavoux limestone. Maxwell, Self-Consistent and Differential schemes are compared. It is shown that concavity parameter is of major importance as may be aspect ratio of spheroidal pores, and that the three reference schemes may conduce to comparable results for the particular investigated microstructure, characterised by a high volume fraction of porous grains (oolites)

On-Machine Self-calibration of a Two-Dimensional Stage Using an Absolute X–Y–Θ Position Sensor

A new self-calibration method for a precision two-dimensional (2D) stage is proposed, which can be applied effectively to on-machine condition. Using a sensor measuring absolute position of a 2D reference scale in the X-, Y-, and Θ-axis, we align the scale in three views efficiently, which are required to obtain an exact solution for a 2D error function of the stage, and higher flexibility is achieved since a sample site interval can be assigned without limitation. The feasibility and performance of the proposed method were evaluated experimentally. Error functions of the 2D stage were obtained at 9 × 9 sample sites with repeatability of 43 nm and 22 nm, when the sample site intervals were 10 mm and 0.1 mm, respectively. Two error functions of the reference scale, obtained using the readouts of the 2D stage or a laser interferometer, coincided within 89 nm and 15 nm for each sample interval.

Standardization in Quantitative Imaging: A Multicenter Comparison of Radiomic Features from Different Software Packages on Digital Reference Objects and Patient Data Sets

Radiomic features are being increasingly studied for clinical applications. We aimed to assess the agreement among radiomic features when computed by several groups by using different software packages under very tightly controlled conditions, which included standardized feature definitions and common image data sets. Ten sites (9 from the NCI's Quantitative Imaging Network] positron emission tomography–computed tomography working group plus one site from outside that group) participated in this project. Nine common quantitative imaging features were selected for comparison including features that describe morphology, intensity, shape, and texture. The common image data sets were: three 3D digital reference objects (DROs) and 10 patient image scans from the Lung Image Database Consortium data set using a specific lesion in each scan. Each object (DRO or lesion) was accompanied by an already-defined volume of interest, from which the features were calculated. Feature values for each object (DRO or lesion) were reported. The coefficient of variation (CV), expressed as a percentage, was calculated across software packages for each feature on each object. Thirteen sets of results were obtained for the DROs and patient data sets. Five of the 9 features showed excellent agreement with CV < 1%; 1 feature had moderate agreement (CV < 10%), and 3 features had larger variations (CV ≥ 10%) even after attempts at harmonization of feature calculations. This work highlights the value of feature definition standardization as well as the need to further clarify definitions for some features.

The introduction of augmented reality technologies in the enterprise information system

Today, there is a great interest in the topic of AR and VR and their popularity is only growing. These technologies are of great importance in our time because of the mass transition to the use of digital technology for processing, transmission and storage of information. The need for augmented reality is growing, because they are all new and new areas in which to apply, for example, heavy industry, foundry, marketing, education, medicine, etc. At the moment companies are clear targets for reducing the cost of production and improve its quality, which can achieve reduction of cycle time. This issue is going to do well AR technologies, because they reduce the time of some technological processes in production such as preparation of forms for casting before work, the use of the reference 3D models to validate final products, the transfer of jobs to production. To obtain data on the effectiveness of the implementation of such technologies in manufacturing have studied the main technical and economic indicators of major companies, for example Boeing or Siemens who already use AR-hats, to construct objects in mechanical engineering. This article discusses the assessment of market AR, which shows the degree of their introduction into various spheres of activities, an overview of the devices that can be embedded in the production process of the enterprise and the analysis of the foundry of the selected companies. An estimate was made of the technological processes of enterprises, which are required to implement AR technologies using the analytic hierarchy process was chosen as the optimal AR-devices for introduction into production and presented a conceptual model of the database for their work in the enterprise system. The materials are of practical importance for the economic development of various industries, especially heavy industry. Developed the concept of a database can be used as a basis for further construction of architectures of information systems, where it is planned to introduce AR technology.

3D-GNOME 2.0: a three-dimensional genome modeling engine for predicting structural variation-driven alterations of chromatin spatial structure in the human genome.

Structural variants (SVs) that alter DNA sequence emerge as a driving force involved in the reorganisation of DNA spatial folding, thus affecting gene transcription. In this work, we describe an improved version of our integrated web service for structural modeling of three-dimensional genome (3D-GNOME), which now incorporates all types of SVs to model changes to the reference 3D conformation of chromatin. In 3D-GNOME 2.0, the default reference 3D genome structure is generated using ChIA-PET data from the GM12878 cell line and SVs data are sourced from the population-scale catalogue of SVs identified by the 1000 Genomes Consortium. However, users may also submit their own structural data to set a customized reference genome structure, and/or a custom input list of SVs. 3D-GNOME 2.0 provides novel tools to inspect, visualize and compare 3D models for regions that differ in terms of their linear genomic sequence. Contact diagrams are displayed to compare the reference 3D structure with the one altered by SVs. In our opinion, 3D-GNOME 2.0 is a unique online tool for modeling and analyzing conformational changes to the human genome induced by SVs across populations. It can be freely accessed at https://3dgnome.cent.uw.edu.pl/.

The Allen Mouse Brain Common Coordinate Framework: A 3D Reference Atlas

Recent large-scale collaborations are generating major surveys of cell types and connections in the mouse brain, collecting large amounts of data across modalities, spatial scales, and brain areas. Successful integration of these data requires a standard 3D reference atlas. Here, we present the Allen Mouse Brain Common Coordinate Framework (CCFv3) as such a resource. We constructed an average template brain at 10μm voxel resolution by interpolating high resolution in-plane serial two-photon tomography images with 100μm z-sampling from 1,675 young adult C57BL/6J mice. Then, using multimodal reference data, we parcellated the entire brain directly in 3D, labeling every voxel with a brain structure spanning 43 isocortical areas and their layers, 329 subcortical gray matter structures, 81 fiber tracts, and 8 ventricular structures. CCFv3 can be used to analyze, visualize, and integrate multimodal and multiscale datasets in 3D and is openly accessible (https://atlas.brain-map.org/).

Mobile Robot Self-Localization with 2D Push-Broom LIDAR in a 2D Map.

This paper proposes mobile robot self-localization based on an onboard 2D push-broom (or tilted-down) LIDAR using a reference 2D map previously obtained with a 2D horizontal LIDAR. The hypothesis of this paper is that a 2D reference map created with a 2D horizontal LIDAR mounted on a mobile robot or in another mobile device can be used by another mobile robot to locate its location using the same 2D LIDAR tilted-down. The motivation to tilt-down a 2D LIDAR is the direct detection of holes or small objects placed on the ground that remain undetected for a fixed horizontal 2D LIDAR. The experimental evaluation of this hypothesis has demonstrated that self-localization with a 2D push-broom LIDAR is possible by detecting and deleting the ground and ceiling points from the scan data, and projecting the remaining scan points in the horizontal plane of the 2D reference map before applying a 2D self-location algorithm. Therefore, an onboard 2D push-broom LIDAR offers self-location and accurate ground supervision without requiring an additional motorized device to change the tilt of the LIDAR in order to get these two combined characteristics in a mobile robot.

Free AI Software for Automatic CT Quantification of Coronavirus Disease 2019: An International Collaborative Development, Validation, and Distribution

Background: We aimed to develop and distribute free artificial intelligence (AI) software for the automatic quantification of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pneumonia on computed tomography (CT) images. Methods: We included 150 chest CT scans (17 CT scanners; five vendors) of 105 COVID-19 patients from 13 Korean and Chinese institutions. Two experienced radiologists semi-automatically drew lung opacities in every CT image, preparing 28,580 positive and negative CT slices to develop the 2D U-Net for segmenting pneumonia. The 2D U-Net was distributed as downloadable free software for local use on computers without data privacy concerns. External validation was performed using a Japanese single-institutional dataset and a public Italian dataset. Primary measures for the performance of the network were correlation coefficients for extent (%) and weight (g) of pneumonia. We surveyed user experiences. Findings: In the internal validation dataset, the intraclass correlation coefficients between the 2D U-Net and reference values for the extent and weight were 0·987 and 0·992, respectively. In the Japanese dataset, the Pearson correlation coefficients between the visual CT severity score and 2D U-Net outcomes were 0·906 and 0·916, respectively. In the Italian dataset, the intraclass correlation coefficients between the 2D U-Net and reference values for extent and weight were 0·921 and 0·970, respectively. The median satisfaction score was 9/10 and most respondents replied to use the software willingly. Interpretation: AI software for the automatic quantification of COVID-19 pneumonia on CT images was successfully developed and distributed freely worldwide. Funding Statement: There was no funding source for this study. Declaration of Interests: Sang Joon Park is the CEO of Medical IP. Gin Mo Goo has grants from Infinitt Healthcare, grants from Dongkook Lifescience, outside the submitted work. All the other authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose. Ethics Approval Statement: The institutional review board of the participating hospitals approved this retrospective study, and the requirement for patient consent was waived.

Direct numerical simulation of a spatially developing n-dodecane jet flame under Spray A thermochemical conditions: Flame structure and stabilisation mechanism

We present results from a three-dimensional (3D) direct numerical simulation (DNS) of a spatially developing n-dodecane round jet flame. The thermochemical conditions (i.e. pressure, temperature and oxidiser composition) correspond to those of Spray A, an experimental target flame of the Engine Combustion Network (ECN). To make the DNS computationally tractable, we consider a gas jet with a reduced Reynolds number of 17,000 and a shorter lifted length of 11 times the jet diameter. The flame structure and stabilisation mechanism of the statistically steady jet flame are discussed. Overall the flame structure is similar to that identified from experimental observations, i.e. a region of high formaldehyde (CH2O) concentration, which marks the low-temperature chemistry (LTC), is present upstream of the main flame and persists downstream in the central region of the jet where the mixture is rich. A high-temperature (HTC) nonpremixed flame marked by OH radicals shrouds the jet. Ignition kernels are observed upstream of the flame base, some of which are convected downstream and join with the main flame. At the flame base, a three-branch structure is observed, namely an LTC branch upstream of the flame, a rich HTC branch attached to the flame base and a trailing nonpremixed flame anchored at the stoichiometric mixture fraction. A detailed analysis of the flame stabilisation mechanism is reported, employing structural comparisons to two-dimensional (2D) reference cases, transport budgets, and flame speeds. It is concluded from these analyses that the flame is stabilised principally by flame propagation. The role of autoignition kernels is also analysed and found to be secondary.

Application of Kinematic GPR-TPS Model with High 3D Georeference Accuracy for Underground Utility Infrastructure Mapping: A Case Study from Urban Sites in Celje, Slovenia

This paper describes in detail the applicability of the developed ground-penetrating radar (GPR) model with a kinematic GPR and self-tracking (robotic) terrestrial positioning system (TPS) surveying setup (GPR-TPS model) for the acquisition, processing and visualisation of underground utility infrastructure (UUI) in a real urban environment. The integration of GPR with TPS can significantly improve the accuracy of UUI positioning in a real urban environment by means of efficient control of GPR trajectories. Two areas in the urban part of Celje in Slovenia were chosen. The accuracy of the kinematic GPR-TPS model was analysed by comparing the three-dimensional (3D) position of UUI given as reference values (true 3D position) from the officially consolidated cadastre of utility infrastructure in the Republic of Slovenia and those obtained by the GPR-TPS method. To determine the reference 3D position of the GPR antenna and UUI, the same positional and height geodetic network was used. Small unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) were used for recording to provide a better spatial display of the results of UUI obtained with the GPR-TPS method. As demonstrated by the results, the kinematic GPR-TPS model for data acquisition can achieve an accuracy of fewer than 15 centimetres in a real urban environment.

Teaching cutaneous sensory distribution of the upper limb using interactive virtual reality

Understanding the normal distribution of dermatomes and the named sensory nerves that innervate the skin of the upper limb is a critical clinical tool for the medical student, as it can allow them to diagnose a spinal or peripheral nervous system pathology without advanced imaging. The anatomy of dermatomes and named sensory nerves is traditionally taught using 2‐dimensional (2D) images, with separate ventral and dorsal views that students labor to connect into a whole construct, which may not easily translate to 3‐dimensions (3D) for interacting with patients. We observed that this is a potential area for implementation of Virtual Reality (VR) innovation, which can more easily convey 3D concepts and thereby provide students with a novel method of learning that will more accurately reflect real‐world anatomy. We therefore designed a student‐lead, interactive VR group activity that would allow for better visualization of sensory nerve distributions to improve the anatomical and clinical connections for pre‐clinical medical students.An unmarked 3D model of a human male body in anatomical position was provided for students (n=103) in the program Medium with the Oculus Virtual Reality system. During a 45 minute lab session on upper limb anatomy, small groups (4–6 students) were assigned the goal of “painting” the unmarked 3D model with color‐coded segments to reflect 2D reference images of dermatome distribution for the upper limbs. One student per group volunteered to digitally paint the model in VR while their group mates watched their actions on a projection and verbally instructed them on translating the 2D reference images onto the 3D virtual model using anatomical terminology to reinforce understanding. After the activity, students were provided with a marked version of the 3D dermatome/named nerve maps created by the instructors as an independent study resource.No significant differences were noted on exam scores between cohorts that were provided VR activity (2019) and those that were taught using traditional 2D images (2018), with inconsistent performance on two exam questions among the anatomy cohorts. The dermatome question increased in percent correct (2018: 47%, 2019: 54%) while the named cutaneous nerve question decreased in correct responses (2018: 70%, 2019: 60%). These remain among the lowest scoring questions in terms of correct responses in our exam despite the VR intervention. Furthermore, student feedback on the activity was mixed. The instructor‐created independent study resource netted a high click‐through rate and student interactivity relative to other provided resources, though 66% of students reported not finding the activity useful. In future iterations of the exercise, time constraints will be removed by creating group assignments to be done outside of existing lab times. With adjustments, we predict these exercises will enhance student understanding of nerve/skin associations and will therefore deepen their clinically relevant knowledge on the presentations of pathological conditions. The 3D cutaneous nerve distribution model provides a more accurate and understandable reference for students to build their clinical knowledge than 2D references.

Use of Digitally Annotated and Printed 3D Models for Teaching the Pterygopalatine Fossa

Anatomically deep and geometrically complex regions are difficult for students to visualize in gross dissections, overly simplified in models, and not faithfully depicted in 2D images. One such region is the pterygopalatine fossa which communicates with the infratemporal region, middle cranial fossa, cranial base, nasal and oral cavities, and face via 7 osteological foramina or fissures. Given the geometric complexity of this space, we aimed to create a 3D based educational tool for students to use in their pre‐clinical, dissection‐free head and neck anatomy course.A cranium rendered from CT imaging was imported into Medium, a digital sculpting program, using the Oculus Virtual Reality (VR) system. The right half was removed, and the left half was divided into three sections via two parasagittal slices. The lateral parasagittal cut bisected the foramen rotundum and palatine canals, and the medial parasagittal cut bisected the left half of the nasal cavity. The only alterations to the morphology was an exaggeration of the palatine canal and the anterior and posterior openings of the Vidian canal to allow for the passage of wires during the lab exercise. The three sections of the cranium were then 3D printed. In addition to 3D printing, the model was annotated in Medium by drawing in the course of the maxillary artery and nerve and their branches, and the nerve of the Vidian canal in the pterygopalatine fossa and associated regions. The model showing the neurovasculature related to the pterygopalatine fossa was imported into Sketchfab, a 3D model publishing platform, where labels could be placed to identify structures and provide additional information. The labeled model was embedded into the digital lab manual for students to reference during the lab activity where they were directed to pass a wire through the various foramina and fissures in the region to understand the passage of the neurovasculature in and out of the pterygopalatine fossa.The annotated digital model allowed students to visualize the completed course of these nerves and arteries while the printed model gave appreciation for the location, size, and orientation of the canals and foramina through which the pterygopalatine fossa communicates with other regions. This intervention was applied in the 2019 Living Anatomy: Head and Neck course, where students did not perform dissection but did have access to prosected cadavers and plastinations.Student performance on the 2019 exam was statistically identical to the performance of previous cohorts in a traditional dissection‐based anatomy course (2018: 85.9%; 2019: 88.1%). The 2019 cohort on average scored lower on questions derived from the material from the lab that included this intervention compared to the 2018 cohort (2018: 84.82%; 2019: 80.76%). However, the pterygopalatine fossa question (97.09%) outperformed the nasal cavity (80.58%) and larynx/pharynx (78.5%) questions. Additionally, students ranked digitally annotated 3D models the 3rd highest activity or resource following faculty directed case studies and the prosected cadavers. Student exam results and feedback indicate a utility of providing physical objects with digital 3D reference material during anatomy instruction.