There is only limited knowledge of the presence and incidence of viruses in peas within the United Kingdom, therefore high-throughput sequencing (HTS) in combination with a bulk sampling strategy and targeted testing was used to determine the virome in cultivated pea crops. Bulks of 120 leaves collected from twenty fields from around the UK were initially tested by HTS, and presence and incidence of virus was then determined using specific real-time reverse-transcription PCR assays by testing smaller mixed-bulk size samples. This study presents the first finding of turnip yellows virus (TuYV) in peas in the UK and the first finding of soybean dwarf virus (SbDV) in the UK. While TuYV was not previously known to be present in UK peas, it was found in 13 of the 20 sites tested and was present at incidences up to 100%. Pea enation mosaic virus-1, pea enation mosaic virus-2, pea seed-borne mosaic virus, bean yellow mosaic virus, pea enation mosaic virus satellite RNA and turnip yellows virus associated RNA were also identified by HTS. Additionally, a subset of bulked samples were re-sequenced at greater depth to ascertain whether the relatively low depth of sequencing had missed any infections. In each case the same viruses were identified as had been identified using the lower sequencing depth. Sequencing of an isolate of pea seed-borne mosaic virus from 2007 also revealed the presence of TuYV and SbDV, showing that both viruses have been present in the UK for at least a decade, and represents the earliest whole genome of SbDV from Europe. This study demonstrates the potential of HTS to be used as a surveillance tool, or for crop-specific field survey, using a bulk sampling strategy combined with HTS and targeted diagnostics to indicate both presence and incidence of viruses in a crop.

Well-managed legume-based food systems are uniquely positioned to curtail the existential challenge posed by climate change through the significant contribution that legumes can make toward limiting Green House Gas (GHG) emissions. This potential is enabled by the specific functional attributes offered only by legumes, which deliver multiple co-benefits through improved ecosystem functions, including reduced farmland biodiversity loss, and better human-health and -nutrition provisioning. These three critical societal challenges are referred to collectively here as the “climate-biodiversity-nutrition nexus.” Despite the unparalleled potential of the provisions offered by legumes, this diverse crop group remains characterized as underutilized throughout Europe, and in many regions world-wide. This commentary highlights that integrated, diverse, legume-based, regenerative agricultural practices should be allied with more-concerted action on ex-farm gate factors at appropriate bioregional scales. Also, that this can be achieved whilst optimizing production, safeguarding food-security, and minimizing additional land-use requirements. To help avoid forfeiting the benefits of legume cultivation for system function, a specific and practical methodological and decision-aid framework is offered. This is based upon the identification and management of sustainable-development indicators for legume-based value chains, to help manage the key facilitative capacities and dependencies. Solving the wicked problems of the climate-biodiversity-nutrition nexus demands complex solutions and multiple benefits and this legume-focus must be allied with more-concerted policy action, including improved facilitation of the catalytic provisions provided by collaborative capacity builders—to ensure that the knowledge networks are established, that there is unhindered information flow, and that new transformative value-chain capacities and business models are established.

AbstractIn order to gain an understanding of the genetic basis of traits of interest to breeders, the pea varieties Brutus, Enigma and Kahuna were selected, based on measures of their phenotypic and genotypic differences, for the construction of recombinant inbred populations. Reciprocal crosses were carried out for each of the three pairs, and over 200 F2 seeds from each cross advanced to F13. Bulked F7 seeds were used to generate F8–F11 bulks, which were grown in triplicated plots within randomized field trials and used to collect phenotypic data, including seed weight and yield traits, over a number of growing seasons. Genetic maps were constructed from the F6 generation to support the analysis of qualitative and quantitative traits and have led to the identification of four major genetic loci involved in seed weight determination and at least one major locus responsible for variation in yield. Three of the seed weight loci, at least one of which has not been described previously, were associated with the marrowfat seed phenotype. For some of the loci identified, candidate genes have been identified. The F13 single seed descent lines are available as a germplasm resource for the legume and pulse crop communities.

The market demands for pulses are diverse, ranging from an economical source of protein, to convenience and heath foods, to stockfeed. A common trend amongst all markets is that consumers are becoming increasingly sophisticated in their demands. Market growth is occurring in both feed and food markets and there is likely to be a widening of the supply/demand gap unless productivity can be improved. Research opportunities to enable suppliers to meet this growing market demand relate to both productivity and quality and the balance of investment in these activities varies between suppliers. For the sub-continent, a net importer of pulses, the focus is clearly on productivity. For Europe, the focus, for both the stockfeed and well-established food processing industry, is primarily on quality attributes. For Australia, the focus is both on productivity, to ensure pulses are part of the farmer’s cropping program and required supply volumes can be met, and on quality attributes to better meet customer requirements and gain access to higher value markets. In the short term, a focus on productivity factors may provide greatest benefit to the industry, as long as this is not at the expense of quality attributes.

The response of spring field beans (Vicia faba) (cv. Victor) to irrigation applied before, during and after flowering and in combinations was studied on sandy soils, overlying sand, in Nottinghamshire, England in three years, 1993, 1994 and 1995. Irrigation was only needed pre-flowering in 1995, thus the opportunity to evaluate the effect at this timing was limited. Seasonal rainfall was higher than the long-term 30-year mean in 1993, but lower in 1994 and much lower in 1995.Irrigation increased spring field bean yield in all three years, even in 1993 when a period of drought post-flowering caused a yield depression of 2 t/ha on unirrigated plots. The yield response for fully irrigated, compared with unirrigated field beans per 25 mm water was 0·34, 0·28 and 0·36 t/ha in 1993, 1994 and 1995 respectively. Irrigation applied during or post-flowering gave statistically significant yield increases and there were indications of greater efficiency of water use from post-flowering applications.

The response of two cultivars of dry harvest field peas (Pisum sativum), Solara and Bohatyr, to irrigation at different growth stages was studied on light soils overlying sand in Nottinghamshire, England in 1990, when the spring was particularly dry, in 1991 which had a dry spring and summer and in contrast, 1992, when rainfall was greater compared with the long-term (40 year) mean.Solara, short haulmed and semi-leafless was more sensitive to drought than the tall conventional-leaved cultivar Bohatyr and gave a greater yield response to irrigation, particularly at the vegetative growth stage in the first two dry years 1990 and 1991, of 108% and 55% respectively, compared with unirrigated plots. Bohatyr was less sensitive to the timing of single applications.In all years, peas irrigated throughout on several occasions produced the highest yields, but this was the least efficient use of water.

Experiments to evaluate the optimum plant population density and sowing date for winter peas, semi-leafless cv. Rafale, were sited on free draining sandy loam soils at Thornhaugh, Cambridgeshire in 1993/94 (Expt 1), 1994/95 (Expt 2) and 1995/96 (Expt 3). Peas were sown at the end of October, in mid-November and early December, at seed rates to achieve final plant densities in spring of 50, 70 or 90 plants/m2. Seed rates were calculated allowing for 20% seedbed loss and plant loss due to winter kill in Expt 1, and 15% in the other two years.Peas sown in warmer seedbeds in October emerged in early December or before, November-sown peas did not emerge until mid-January and December-sown peas from late February to mid-March. The growth stage of October-sown peas was thus more advanced than the later sowings over the winter and spring period. Winters were mild for Expts 1 and 2, but there were more frost periods during Expt 3.The yield of winter peas was dependent on sowing date. Yields of Rafale sown in October were highest in Expt 1, but lower than November-sown peas in 1995 (Expt 2), as a result of damage from late frosts during flower initiation in April, and in 1996 (Expt 3) due to plant losses after a more severe winter, frost periods and very cold winds in March. In Expts 1 and 2, yields of December-sown peas were significantly lower than November-sown peas, probably because they were adversely affected by drought stress during the sensitive flowering period. Therefore the optimum time for sowing winter pea cv. Rafale to achieve reliable yields appears to be mid-November. In some years, however, conditions may be too wet for late drilling, particularly on heavier soils.The highest plant population densities of 90 plants/m2 gave the highest yields in Expts 2 and 3, but there was little increase between 75 and 90 plants/m2. Bearing in mind financial return and seed costs, the optimum target suggested is 75–80 plants/m2.