The Role of Non-State Actors in the Cultural Heritage Field – The Case of the Orthodox Church and Its Heritage in Turkey

Many observers view the 1972 United Nations (UN) Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm, as the event that heralded the active involvement of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in international policy making. In the intervening years, NGO participation in international policy making has grown exponentially, as has the number of multilateral environmental conventions, global environmental conferences and other efforts to facilitate a global governance of the human environment. The increasing numbers of NGOs with a stake in global environmental politics has been well documented, as has the presence at multilateral negotiations and their influence on negotiation outcomes (Betsill and Corell 2008). This paper examines the role and influence of non-state actors (NSAs) in multinational, supranational and transnational policy making. We have selected three models of rulemaking to help explain the role and influence of NSAs in different governance systems, reflecting developments within global environmental governance over the past three decades. Whereas multinational cooperation remained the model of choice whenever international environmental rules were created until the 1980s, the model has been joined in recent years by supranational and transnational rulemaking models. We begin by briefly reviewing the three models before presenting three case studies. In the first we examine how NSAs brought their influence to bear in a particular case of multinational environmental negotiations: the International Whaling Commission (IWC). This should shed light on some of the conditions that allow NGOs to exert such a high degree of influence in multinational policy-making processes. Next we explore the role and influence of NSAs in the making of the European Union (EU) Emissions Trading System (ETS). This is a prime example of supranational policy making, and serves to demonstrate the complexity of assessing the influence of NSAs in a dense institutional context. Focusing on social and environmental certification programs, the third case examines a growing tendency for NSAs to act as transnational rule makers in policy areas where states have been unwilling or unable to provide governance. Three Models of Rule Making and the Role of Non-State Actors In multinational cooperation, here represented by the IWC, member states enjoy in principle full authority. The legitimacy of rule-making is ensured by consent between sovereign states based on international law. In this liberal intergovernmental rule-making model, NSAs belong to the set of domestic special interest organizations with sufficient clout to influence negotiating positions. Of course, their efforts to influence negotiation positions meet with varying success; nation-states always have the final word. In supranational cooperation, in this paper represented by the EU ETS scheme, nationstates have transferred some of their sovereignty to other actors. In the EU case, this is most visible is the rules on qualified majority voting, co-decision making by the European Parliament and the policy-initiating role of the Commission. In short, as the consent of a state in itself is sometimes wanting in terms of legitimacy, there need additional sources of

Cyberwarfare has become one of the most prominent aspects of global geopolitical competition, introducing a new dimension of conflict involving states and non-state actors. Although research on the role of states in cyber warfare has been amplacious, research on the role of non-state actors is still limited. This study aims to analyze the role and impact of non-state actors in global cyber warfare. In cyber warfare, non-state actors can exploit the vulnerabilities of security systems to achieve their political or ideological goals, changing geopolitical dynamics in unexpected ways. Case studies raised in this study include cyber attacks by Anonymous groups against governments and companies, cyber acts of terrorism by ISIS, manipulation of information by extremist groups to achieve their political goals, and the use of digital propaganda in regional conflicts. By paying attention to the concept of force and security in the perspective of realism, this research is expected to provide a better understanding of how non-state actors influence global geopolitical dynamics through cyber warfare. The implication of this research is the importance of strengthening national cyber defense and international cooperation in the face of threats presented by non-state actors in the cyber domain.

Global climate governance is multilateral and involves both state and non-state actors. This study sets to identify the ways in which non-state actors can access and participate in the international climate change regime under the UNFCCC and the 2015 Paris Agreement and to evaluate how they can influence law-making processes and outcomes under the agreements. The study further provides recommendations on how the involvement of non-state actors can be improved under the agreements. The study emphasizes that under the UNFCCC, non-state actors have an important role in acting as intermediaries under the orchestration governance model and in participating to the Conference of Parties and under the Paris Agreement, by exerting influence on state’s nationally determined contributions. The study suggests that the role of non-state actors in formulating nationally determined contributions and in participating to the Conference of Parties should be further formalised and that the NAZCA portal should be improved.

Contents: Part I Introduction and Sources: Non-state actors in the international system of states, Bob Reinalda The Yearbook of International Organizations and quantitative non-state actor research, Elizabeth Bloodgood Researching transnational history: the example of peace activism, Thomas Richard Davies The United Nations Intellectual History Project and the role of ideas, Francis Baert. Part II Actors Other than Governments:Transnational religious actors, John T.S. Madeley and Jeffrey Haynes Transnational corporations and the regulation of business at the global level, Karsten Ronit Unravelling the political role of experts and expertise in the professional services industry, Angela Wigger Parliaments and parliamentarians as international actors, AndrA(c)s Malamud and Stelios Stavridis Autonomous agencies of the European Union as non-state actors, Martijn Groenleer. Part III Perceptions and Understanding: Liberal political philosophy: the role of non-state actors and considerations of global justice, Geoff Gordon and Roland Pierik Non-governmental organizations and non-state actors in international law, Anna-Karin Lindblom Intergovernmental organizations in international relations theory and as actors in world politics, Joel E. Oestreich Inter-organizational relations: an emerging research programme, Rafael Biermann Civil society and NGO: far from unproblematic concepts, Norbert GA tz Non-state and state actors in global governance, Martin Koch Limitations of intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, Dennis Dijkzeul and William E. DeMars. Part IV Nature and Impact: Non-state actors and the transformation of diplomacy, Brian Hocking Dynamism and resilience of intergovernmental organizations in a world of persisting state power and rising non-state actors, Yves Schemeil International bureaucracies: organizing world politics, Steffen Bauer and Silke Weinlich Interest representation and advocacy within the European Union: the making of democracy?, Sabine Saurugger From agenda setting to decision making: opening the black box of non-governmental organizations, Liesbet Heyse Non-governmental organizations and decision making in the United Nations, Jutta Joachim The ongoing organizational reform of the United Nations, Yves Beigbeder Reporting and peer review in the implementation of international rules: what role for non-state actors?, Thomas Conzelmann Accountability of public and private international organizations, Steve Charnovitz Non-state actors and the proliferation and individualization of international dispute settlement, Eric De Brabandere. Part V Separate Worlds: Politics and the world of humanitarian aid, Wolf-Dieter Eberwein Non-governmental organizations in the human rights world, Anja Mihr Non-state actors in the global security world, Carolyn M. Stephenson Non-state actors in the development aid world as seen from the South, Moushumi Basu Cities for citizens in the global South: approaches of non-governmental organizations working in urban development, Diana Mitlin Non-state actors in the global health world, Peter Hough Non-state actors in multilateral trade governance, Dirk De BiAvre and Marcel Hanegraaff Non-state actors and environmental governance: comparing multinational, supranational and transnational rule making, Lars H. Gulbrandsen, Steinar Andresen and Jon Birger SkjA|rseth Bibliography Index.

Patrimony for Peace:

Türkiye is a region that bears the traces of many different civilizations from the past to the present. This diversity has endowed the country's culture with a deep and rich dimension. This study examines the role of social studies education in the preservation of cultural heritage in Turkey and its relationship with tourism. The aim of the research is to reveal the potential contributions of social studies education to the sustainability of cultural heritage and the development of tourism by evaluating its impact on students. Conducted within the framework of a qualitative research design, the study involved a comprehensive literature review and an analysis of the 2005 and 2018 social studies curricula for grades 4, 5, 6, and 7. The findings indicate that social studies education provides students with significant awareness regarding the preservation of cultural heritage in Turkey and its integration with tourism. Furthermore, this research emphasizes the educational role of social studies education in the context of preserving cultural heritage and the sustainability of tourism. These findings may contribute to shaping educational policies in Turkey and other countries in this direction. Keywords: social studies education, culture and heritage, cultural heritage and tourism, Turkey’s cultural heritage, preservation of cultural heritage

The objectives of this paper are to investigate first, the establishment and roles of non-state actors (NSAs) under Thai laws; and second, whether, and if so, to what extent, they are recognised. The New Draft Water Code and other related legislation will be examined in order to assess whether NSAs are allowed to participate in water issues. Are they in fact ignored? If so, this paper aims to illustrate the way in which, and to what extent, they could have contributed to the development of water law.

This chapter engages the key legal debates surrounding the role of non-state actors (NSAs) in climate law. NSAs—a wide category that reflects the expansion of international climate governance beyond the state—include entities as diverse as individuals, companies, international organizations, industry associations, cities, indigenous peoples, and civil-society organizations. Over the past decades, and especially since the adoption of the Paris Agreement, the many roles of NSAs in addressing climate change have attracted significant interest from treaty negotiators, business man-agers, environmental activists, policymakers, and researchers. Seen as performing vital functions ranging from innovation and agenda-setting to implementation, monitoring, and enforcement, NSAs are widely considered as bringing about dynamic forms of climate governance. The potential of direct mitigation effort by NSAs, such as voluntary emission-reduction commitments by companies and cities, is similarly highlighted as a key component in any future solution to climate change. The growing climate action by NSAs forces a rethink of the legal underpinnings of the climate regime and opens new perspectives on the logic of NSA-driven climate governance. This chapter discusses the legal dynamics of non-state climate governance. Using three archetypical NSAs—companies, cities, and civil-society organizations—as proxies, the chapter isolates three primary debates that frame the interactions between NSAs and climate law. These debates focus on the responsibility of NSAs for causing climate change, the legal techniques of NSA governance, and the role of NSAs as agents of legal change and they reflect the rise of polycentric climate governance and illustrate the expansion of climate law beyond its original emphasis on states. However, the discussion also exposes the difficulties that emerge when embedding different NSAs in a single conceptual frame, as well as the limits of NSA-driven governance more broadly.

Violence and crime have been a continuous challenge to states, and this book has shown how states and non-state actors cope with this problem. Defining violence and crime as overarching terms, the volume presented different governance efforts that included more passive and more active roles of non-state actors. As addressees, non-state actors cause governance problems through norm violation. Classical examples are rebel groups in civil wars or organized crime. In the case of delegation, non-state actors implement public regulations, thus executing functions that the state cannot or does not want to provide. Examples of this include banks that oversee financial transactions or internet providers that store traffic data. Non-state actors play an even more active role as co-regulators, when non-state actors become partners in governance and implementation. Prominent cases are public—private partnerships or self-regulatory schemes. Finally, non-state actors can act as advocates, which is the most autonomous role. In this case, they initiate and consult on governance as moral entrepreneurs or lobbyists. Against this background, the introductory chapter presented different roles of non-state actors in terms of an ‘interaction triangle’.

The conflict on the island of Bougainville in Papua New Guinea was easily the worst tragedy to befall the South West Pacific since World War II. Between ten and fifteen thousand lives were lost, many others traumatised and uprooted, and the territory's social and economic structure devastated. A peace process under way since 1997 has made tangible progress, but many years of physical repair, social reconstruction, and psychological healing are needed before Bougainville can consign its tragedies to the past. After outlining the conflict's causes, the paper will address the reasons for its prolonged stalemate and resistance to settlement. The peace process is evaluated, with the identities and functions of the non-state actors most immediately involved explained. Bougainville's distinctive ethnic configuration within a Melanesian setting, where lines of state responsibility do not accord with social identities, is addressed. Given the legitimacy and sovereignty considerations raised by non-state actor involvement within internal conflict settlement processes, a delicate balance of constraints and possibilities faced New Zealand's third party mediation role. That role is evaluated in a setting where the individual and group aspirations of the non-state actors most directly involved facilitated, yet also obstructed moves towards a negotiated settlement and its planned implementation.

This chapter analyzes the different roles of non-state actors in global crime governance. The chapter starts by elaborating on the complexity of global crime governance, which makes the involvement of non-state actors in governance efforts more likely. In a second step, different categories of non-state contributions are presented, showing that the different attempts of global crime governance presented in the book vary significantly in how far they involve non-state actors. In the following section, the role of non-state actors in the global policy process is presented, showing that moral entrepreneurship at the beginning of a norm life cycle is only one among other crucial roles non-state actors play. In sum, the chapter shows that world society formation in global crime governance is accompanied by various and different contributions of non-state actors.

This study examined the role of Non State Actors (NSAs) in strengthening the developmental capacity of the state, using a case study of Cross River State, Nigeria. Primary and secondary data on selected constituents of NSAs including Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs), Privately Owned Companies, Banks, Private Hospitals and Private Schools were analyzed using tables and charts. The results revealed that activities of NSAs significantly enhance the developmental capacity of Cross River State especially in the areas of provision of public services, knowledge and skill acquisition, infrastructural development and employment generation. Besides other recommendations, it was recommended that NSAs and the government should perform complementary roles in enhancing developmental capacity and that the establishment of more NSAs in the rural areas should be encouraged through the provision of special funding and other incentives for NSAs that have their offices in the rural areas.

Theoretical and practical perspectives from a range of disciplines on the challenges of using digital media in interpretation and representation of cultural heritage. In Theorizing Digital Cultural Heritage, experts offer a critical and theoretical appraisal of the uses of digital media by cultural heritage institutions. Previous discussions of cultural heritage and digital technology have left the subject largely unmapped in terms of critical theory; the essays in this volume offer this long-missing perspective on the challenges of using digital media in the research, preservation, management, interpretation, and representation of cultural heritage. The contributors—scholars and practitioners from a range of relevant disciplines—ground theory in practice, considering how digital technology might be used to transform institutional cultures, methods, and relationships with audiences. The contributors examine the relationship between material and digital objects in collections of art and indigenous artifacts; the implications of digital technology for knowledge creation, documentation, and the concept of authority; and the possibilities for "virtual cultural heritage"—the preservation and interpretation of cultural and natural heritage through real-time, immersive, and interactive techniques. The essays in Theorizing Digital Cultural Heritage will serve as a resource for professionals, academics, and students in all fields of cultural heritage, including museums, libraries, galleries, archives, and archaeology, as well as those in education and information technology. The range of issues considered and the diverse disciplines and viewpoints represented point to new directions for an emerging field. Contributors Nadia Arbach, Juan Antonio Barceló, Deidre Brown, Fiona Cameron, Erik Champion, Sarah Cook, Jim Cooley, Bharat Dave, Suhas Deshpande, Bernadette Flynn, Maurizio Forte, Kati Geber, Beryl Graham, Susan Hazan, Sarah Kenderdine, José Ripper Kós, Harald Kraemer, Ingrid Mason, Gavan McCarthy, Slavko Milekic, Rodrigo Paraizo, Ross Parry, Scot T. Refsland, Helena Robinson, Angelina Russo, Corey Timpson, Marc Tuters, Peter Walsh, Jerry Watkins, Andrea Witcomb

This chapter examines the role of non-state actors in promoting compliance with climate change instruments and finds that their contribution has been substantial. Non-state actors are proven enforcers – sometimes more effective than states. Climate cases brought by non-state actors to non-climate institutions help to demonstrate this point, and effective mechanisms for non-state access to compliance are modeled within multilateral environmental agreements ranging from Aarhus to NAFTA. The author argues that the role of non-state actors should be expanded as climate change frameworks evolve and compliance mechanisms are strengthened. Leaving the public without standing within formal enforcement mechanisms misses a critical opportunity to promote compliance.

The purpose of the article is to analyze digitization as a global trend of the early 21st century and to develop a cultural model for studying the scope of application of digital transformation practices as a new way to preserve and promote cultural heritage based on the experience of the Baltic States and Ukraine. The study of the impact of digital transformation practices in the field of cultural heritage in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Ukraine has demonstrated the need to deepen ties between these countries by establishing a cultural dialogue, exchanging information and experience on the use of technological innovations in the field of cultural heritage, as well as increasing the value and content of joint cultural projects. Methodology. The theoretical basis and methodology of the study is the historical and cultural method, which contributed to the study of the historical dynamics of digitization; typological and comparative methods – for the study and analysis of cultural heritage objects as phenomena and artifacts. A special role is played by the cultural method, which is meaning-forming through the study of interdependent cultural processes – representation, identity, etc. Results. The authors, involving the professional community, which emphasizes the problem of the lack of a general electronic register of cultural heritage sites in Ukraine, as well as the lack of a strategy for digitizing such sites, draw attention to the fact that the situation began to change rapidly in 2022. It has been proved that the experience of Estonia (museum information system MuIS, five-year action plan for the digitization of cultural heritage for 2018-2023), Latvia (project "Digitization of cultural heritage content"), Lithuania (creation of the Council for the Digitization of Lithuanian Cultural Heritage, virtual electronic information system of cultural heritage VEPIS, museum information system LIMIS) will contribute to the strengthening of technological and cultural innovations in the field of protection and promotion of cultural heritage of Ukraine. Digitization is a task that requires significant financial and intellectual investments, but the authors prove that this direction can become a source of income for creative industries (economic value) and a resource for creating new meanings (symbolic value). Practical implications. The analyzed experience of the Baltic countries will be a valuable source of information for intensifying digital transformation in Ukraine. Deepening Ukraine's cultural ties with Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania in order to exchange experience in the field of cultural heritage is of practical importance, as a number of implemented Baltic projects will help Ukrainian specialists to increase the efficiency of using modern technological tools in the field of culture. The article pays attention to European and Ukrainian public and private cultural projects and initiatives that are being implemented to digitize the preservation and promotion of historical and cultural heritage. Value/originality. It is advisable to study the prospects of cultural heritage tokenization and NFT as a tool for preserving, supporting and promoting cultural heritage.