The Lithuanian mirative present and its history

472 LANGUAGE, VOLUME 76, NUMBER 2 (2000) members. Of particular interest are Vs biographical sketches of the circle's most important members —Vilém Mathesius, N. S. Trubetzkoy, Roman Takobson. Bohuslav Havránek, and Bohumil Trnka. As always, Vsjudgments are balanced, modest, and kind, even when they concern those who for political reasons chose at times to criticize some of the circle' s founders and their contributions to a 'functionally structural method' of linguistic research. [Zdenek Salzmann, Northern Arizona University.] Verbal periphrases in Romance: Aspect , actionality, and grammaticalization . By Mario Squartini. (Empirical approaches to language typology 21.) Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1998. Pp. xii, 370. Periphrastic temporal constructions in Spanish, Italian, and Portuguese are the primary focus of this book. By comparison to these three standard languages , temporal (including aspectuo-temporal) periphrases in French, Catalan, Galician, and Occitan, as well as Latin American varieties of Spanish (Mexican foremost) and Portuguese (Brazilian), receive modest attention. Reference is periodically made to Provençal, Judeo-Spanish, and Sardinian, not to mention a few Spanish and Italian dialects. RhaetoRomansch and Romanian barely receive any attention at all. The verbal periphrases of main concern to Squartini are those generally considered most salient (i.e. language-specific) in several of the contemporary Romance languages: progressive, durative, and/or iterative temporal constructions in Spanish and Italian, the perfect tense in Portuguese. These include Spanish estarlirlandarlvenirlllevar + gerund, Italian stare/andare/venire + gerund, and Portuguese ter + past participle (particularly to the extent that the temporal semantics ofthe Portuguese périphrase differ from those of Spanish haber or tener + past participle); for contrastive purposes, the French progressive periphrases être en train de/être (après) à + infinitive and the French passé surcomposé are briefly reviewed as well. Analytic future-tense forms (e.g. Spanish ira + infinitive, French aller + infinitive ) are thus mentioned only in passing (30), while the Romanian future tense—encoded by no fewer than four different periphrases whose auxiliaries are either reflexes orlater phonological reductions ofthe Latin etyma vâdo 'go', habeO 'have', and volo 'want'—is ignored entirely. Throughout his book, S considers the interplay between aspect and actionality—in other words, the interaction between grammatical aspect (to the extent that it is encoded by the temporal morphology of the Romance languages) and lexical aspect (or 'aspectuality'). The latter is represented by the classification of verbs as verbs of state, activity, accomplishment , or achievement, but it includes such properties as durativity and iterativity as well. S views morphosyntactic constraints on the instantiation of various verbal periphrases as evidence of the degree and course of their grammaticalization. In the second of five chapters (35-70), for example , S considers the aspectuo-temporal semantics of the Spanish perfective progressive, a periphrastic tense ofthe type estuvo hablando 'he/she was speaking '. The périphrase is ofinterest because, according to S, it combines two opposing aspectual values: The Spanishpreterite,representedby the auxiliary estuvo, is aspectually perfective, while the gerund hablando is an aspectually imperfective verb form. S considers the opposition between the Spanish preterite (estuvo) and imperfect (estaba) tenses to be an aspectual one, comparable to the aspectual opposition that exists between Bulgarian aorist- and imperfect-tense forms. Bulgarian exhibits notonly perfective but also imperfective aorists (e.g. izpja vspja 'he/she sang') which, in a sense, combine both imperfective and perfective morphology. S therefore believes that the Spanish perfective progressive is more or less functionally equivalent to the Bulgarian imperfective aorist, a verb form that, simply put, denotes a single completion or conclusion of a continuous action (state or activity). The book is written in English; despite an occasional lack of idiomaticity or grammaticality, it is easy to read. All textual examples from Romance languages (by my count, 913, excluding those in the endnotes) are provided with English glosses, which are sometimes too literal. S has translated almost all progressive periphrases into English as mere progressive -tense forms; however, many of these (particularly the Spanish in Ch. 5) would have been better translated as English periphrases of the type keep + presentparticiple andgo on + presentparticiple (e.g. he kept talking, he went on talking, etc.). Ultimately, it is likely that S's work will be appreciated more for the abundance of...

This study was to find out the errors experienced by students in composing passive voice sentences. It also explained the factors that caused students' barriers in constructing passive voice sentences. This study focused on students' errors and bariers in constructing passive voice sentences in the form of Simple Present Tense, Simple Past Tense, and Present Future Perfect Tense. The research approach used was a qualitative method through a case study. The subject of this research was 12 students in class XII of SMKS Yaspenmas Sei Lepan. Data collection techniques were tests and interviews. The findings of this study were the types of student errors on omission 62.4%, misinformation 10.6%, misordering 27%. As well as the location of the error in the passive voice sentence in the form of Simple Present Tense in the use of to be 75%, past participle 100%, then the use of to be in the Simple Past Tense 95, 83% and past participle 64.6%, then the use of have in Present Future Perfect Tense 36.1%, been 100%, and past participle 33.3%. These errors were due to internal factors and external factors. The internal factors were students’ lack of interest in learning English as well as lack of vocabulary mastery and lack of understanding of grammar. The external factors were lack of parental attention, lack of supporting media in the learning process, inadequate school infrastructures, and the road to school was difficult to pass.

The article examines the periphrastic constructions, which consist of the verb imet' (to have) in the form of the present or past tense and the passive participle with the suffix -n- in The History of the Present State of the Ottoman Empire translated by P.A. Tolstoy in the early 18 th century. They are noted to appear in certain cases instead of the forms of passato prossimo and trapassato prossimo of the Italian version of this text. First of all, they are used in a meta-text function when referring to the above mentioned or to someone's words. Such verbal periphrases occur when there is a direct complement in the sentence. The participle in this construction is most often coordinated with the direct object, but in some examples, it can take the form of the neuter singular. This kind of the construction has a typological similarity with the second, or possessive, perfect in a number of Slavic languages (Czech, Kashubian, Macedonian). But unlike the possessive perfect proper, participial forms in such constructions in the translation of The History are formed only from Perfective or Imperfective of transitive verbs. Their use remains characteristic of a specific text, and it is not a part of the grammatical system of the language itself. However, the presence of different models of participle coordination in them indirectly reflects the process of grammaticalization of the passive participle form of the past tense in the Old Russian language.

This study investigates tense morphology in agrammatic aphasia and the predictions of two accounts on processing of regular and irregular verbs: the Dual Mechanism model, that is, for aphasic data, the Declarative/Procedural model, and the Single Mechanism approach. The production of regular, irregular and mixed verbs in the present, simple past and past participle (present perfect) was tested in German by means of a sentence completion task with a group of seven speakers with agrammatic aphasia. The results show a difference between regular verbs and irregular verbs. Mixed verbs were equally difficult as irregular verbs. A frequency effect was found for irregular verbs but not for regular and mixed verbs. A significant difference among the correctness scores for present tense and simple past forms was found. Simple past and past participle were significantly more difficult than present tense. Error types were characterized by pure infinitive responses and time reference errors. Neither of the above accounts is sufficient to explain these results. Correctness scores and error patterns for mixed verbs suggest that such minor lexical patterns can be useful in finding new evidence in the debate on morphological processing. The findings also highlight time reference as well as language specific characteristics need to be taken into consideration.

In this study, the authors examined the linguistic profile of African American English (AAE)-speaking children reared in poverty by focusing on their marking of passive participles and by comparing the results with the authors' previous study of homophonous forms of past tense (S. Pruitt & J. Oetting, 2009). The data were from 45 five- to six-year-olds who spoke AAE and who participated in the authors' earlier study. Fifteen were classified as low-income (LSES); the others were classified as middle-income and served as either age- or language-matched controls. The data came from a probe that was designed by S. M. Redmond (2003), but it was modified to examine the morphological and phonological characteristics of AAE. Participle marking by all 3 groups was influenced by AAE phonology, but the LSES children marked the participles at lower rates than the controls. The LSES children's rates of participle marking were also lower than their rates of marking for homophonous forms of past tense. Unlike the children's rates of past-tense marking, their rates of participle marking were correlated to their vocabulary test scores. AAE-speaking children reared in poverty present weaknesses in aspects of grammatical morphology that are related to their vocabulary weaknesses.

Arabic has three tenses: past, present and future. The past tense refers to actions that took place in the past (كتب kataba He wrote). The present tense pertains to habitual actions, or those that are currently ongoing (يكتب /yaktubu/ He writes). The future signifies actions expected to occur in the future by adding the prefix س /sa/ or the particle سوف /sawfa/ to the present tense form of the verb (سيكتب sa-yaktubu He will write). Arabic also has a perfect and an imperfect aspect, an active participle (كاتب /ka:tib/ writer) and a passive participle (مكتوب /maktu:b/ (written). Stretches of discourse containing the progressive markers عمال عم &باش and active participle forms of sense, motion, and volition verbs as امشي walk, تعال come here, قوم get up; جالس sitting, قاعد sitting, أروح go, سامع hearing, شايف seeing and others were collected from informants and social media posts in order to find out how the aforementioned particles, lexical verbs and participles are used to express the progressive and future aspects in spoken Colloquial Arabic dialects and the grammaticalization process they went through (desemanticization, decategorization, extension and erosion). Data analysis revealed that the particles باش/ماش (will) and هيا (let’s), verbs as خلينا , هيا,امشي , قوم(let’s), express futurity. Other aspectual particles as عم عمال (are), and verbs of motion, posture, volition and sense and active participles express the Progressive Tense. In some cases, active participles of verbs of motion, posture and volition are ambiguous denoting multiple tenses and aspects as Present Progressive, Past Progressive, Present Perfect depending on the context and availability of adverbs of time. In some case active participles undergo a grammaticalization process where they change from a lexical verb to an aspect marker. Results of the study are given in detail.

The paper discusses the past tense system in the languages of the Volga–Kama linguistic area as well as the lack of morphological evidentiality in Mordva. The Volga–Kama linguistic area comprises Finno-Ugric (Udmurt, Mari, Komi, Mordva) and Turkic (Tatar, Chuvash, Bashkir) languages. The languages in the area, with the exception of Mordva, morphosyntactically mark indirect evidentiality through their past tense systems – this leads to at least two synthetic past tenses in their past tense system. Furthermore, the languages maintain a complex system of compound past tenses incorporating evidential and aspectual meanings. Mordva is an exception again as it does not have any compound past tenses. There are three basic patterns for the development of past tenses in the Volga–Kama area (excluding the generic past tenses that have a well-defined morpho-logical marker, and can be considered primary from a diachronic point of view): i) Predicative use of non-finite forms; ii) The combination of finite verb forms and past tense form(s) of the ‘be’ verb; iii) The combination of non-finite verb forms and the past or present tense form(s) of the ‘be’ verb. Considering the lack of grammatical evi-dentiality in Mordva, it can be established that the potential source of morphological marking of indirect evidentiality in the area is a past tense with a perfect or resultative meaning. Even though Mordva has a synthetic past tense that has structurally the same origin as other past tenses in the area, it is a habitual past tense and not a perfect one. Another potential source for evidentials in the area is the predicative use of non-finite forms – in the case of Mordva, the perfect participle has a predicative use with a passive meaning with transitive verbs, but no evidential functions have been mentioned in the literature.

In many languages that have a so-called present participle (PrP) and gerundials, the PrP is used as perception verb complement (PVC) with control properties, viz. I saw you i [PROi eating apples]. Areas of overlap with object control structures include: (1) pronominalizability of the controlee or the event; (2) ungrammaticality of expletive itin the passive; (3) ungrammaticality of whoin pseudoclefts; (4) reflexivization of non-matrix object under coreference with PRO subject controlled by matrix object; (5) quantifier float in embedded clause; (6) adverbials such as by themselvesas non-matrix adjuncts; and (7) obligatory presence of controlling object D/NP.The to-less infinitive (TLI) as PVC differs not only aspectually from -ing, but also in many formal properties. The standard bare VP shell analysis of the TLI is rejected because (1) quantifier float and adverb placement suggest that the subject has moved from its VP-internal position to a higher position, and (2) passivizability of the lower verb requires at least one Functional Phrase.

This article delves into the intricacies of past participles and their function in complex sentences within the English language. It aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of how past participles are used to create nuance and depth in both written and spoken English. The discussion begins with an examination of the formation and structure of past participles, distinguishing between regular and irregular verbs and their respective participle forms. The article then explores the critical role of past participles in forming perfect tenses, passive voice constructions, and participle clauses, illustrating each function with detailed examples and practical exercises. In addition, common mistakes and misconceptions are addressed, providing clear explanations to help learners differentiate between past participles and past tense forms. Effective teaching strategies are outlined, offering educators practical methods and classroom activities to reinforce learning. The conclusion emphasizes the importance of mastering past participles for achieving advanced language proficiency and encourages further study and practice. By exploring various sentence structures, examples, and common usage patterns, this article offers valuable insights for linguists, educators, and advanced English learners.

Treading in the footsteps of André Martinet and Jean Dubois, the aim of this paper is to classify French verbs on the basis of their phonetic form. Only the root forms of the present tense are retained, and four large classes of verbs are defined : one-root verbs, two-root verbs with a [1236/45] distribution, two-root verbs with a [123/456] distribution, and finally three-root verbs which all present the distribution [123/45/6]. The criterion for the classification has proved to be effective : it enables us to group most traditional 3rd group verbs in a small number of well-defined groups, and to integrate other verbs than verbs ending in <– er> in the class of one-base verbs ; it is not necessary to create a group for the only type <finir> which can be included in a larger class of other similar types. Moreover, this classification brings out interesting regularities regarding the formation of a few verbal syntagms such as the imperfect, the present participle, the subjunctive and the future. It is hoped that this paper will be useful to educational specialists who would like to simplify the teaching of conjugations, and would be in favor of replacing the inadequate traditional classification.

After analyzing the syntactic language in the Baranja transcription, it was discovered that adjectives and verbs generally matched the gender of the noun they were describing, even if the natural and grammatical genders differed. Plural nouns were usually matched with plural verbs, and singular verbs were used with multi-mem- ber subject expressions. The expected form of nouns was typically used with the basic numbers two, three, and four, while the genitive plural form was used with numbers greater than five and with the noun thousand. However, the construction of the base number twelve deviated from the expected form and used the genitive plural instead of the dual form, under the influence of the Serbian vernacular. The Baranja transcription does not differ from other medieval monuments in terms of word order in noun phras- es: the noun phrase generally followed the attribute, although the number of examples in which it follows the noun phrase is not negligible. Also, there were instances where the noun was placed between two attributes. Cases in which the accusative pronominal enclitic precedes the enclitic form of the verb Esmq are also registered in the corpus, which testify to an older word order. Depersonalization, as one of the main character- istics of the style of business law and legal documents, is achieved through the frequent use of passive constructions, primarily reflexive ones. Numerous reflexive passive con- structions and sporadic participial passive constructions contributed to emphasizing the general validity of the legal provisions presented in Dušan’s Code. The tendency to- wards nominalization is reflected in the use of decomposed predicates, built according to different structural models with the copulative verb bQti and semi-copulative verbs dati, imati, ou;initi, etc. Attested examples of decomposed predicates are mostly used in the Baranja transcription of Dušan’s Code in parallel with one-word verb expressions (e.g. biti svade and svaditi se; ou;initi gMsM and gMsiti). The Baranja transcription of Dušan’s Code is rich in examples of the use of participles. The present active participle generally has a determinative role, although there are recorded examples in which it appears in the function of a gerund. The role of an attribute could be taken by the parti- ciple of the present passive. Forms of the preterite active participle most often have the meaning of situational determination. In addition to several examples of the use of this participle in the function of the gerund, there are also isolated examples of its substan- tivization and use in the function of the conjunction. The preterite passive participles were not only found in passive constructions but also as attributes and substantives. The use of the perfect participle was limited to the construction of complex verb tenses and modes. The abundance of examples of sentences with the optative periphrasis da + present, characteristic of the Serbian vernacular, indicates that in the Baranja tran- scription, this was the main way of expressing directivity; at the same time, it should be emphasized that the connection between the particle da and the form of the present tense of the third person singular, dual or plural was most often direct and that confir- mations of interpolation of sentence members are not numerous (except when dealing with enclitic forms of pronouns).

We investigate a relatively understudied phenomenon, the use of the (standard) past tense verb form as a (non-standard) past participle in English, as in I haven’t drank in weeks and refer to this phenomenon as “past tense spreading”. We explore this phenomenon in some familiar, large corpora of English, as well as utilizing the World Wide Web as a corpus through the Google search engine. The corpus-based approach allows us to examine details in the behaviors of many verbs across genres and to identify degrees of spreading among verbs. The web searches reveal differential behaviors for high-frequency and low-frequency verbs with respect to past tense spreading, an example, we claim, of Bybee’s (2006) Conserving Effect. Past tense spreading also occurs more than expected with modal auxiliaries, a pattern which would not be predicted based solely on the non-standard character of the phenomenon.

This article, devoted to the analysis of parts of speech in the works of Makhmud Zamakhshari, addresses the question of conjugation of verbs in the last chapter named “Tasrifu-l-af’al” of the book “Mukaddamatu-l-adab”. The article emphasizes that the verb is an important part of speech in Arabic, that it is impossible to master the grammatical rules and categories without knowing its morphological features, that some parts of speech, especially masdars, the degrees of adjectives are formed from verbal roots. In “Mukaddamatu-l-Adab” was written that verbs in Arabic are divided into verbs with three and four roots and the majority are the verbs with three roots. Verbs with four roots, as well as verbs with three roots, lean with the help of those suffixes and prefixes. In the formation of the present tense forms, imperative forms, masdars, participles are also based on the same rules as for three-verbs. Makhmud Zamakhshari, defining the doubled verbs as verbs in the three-root group, in which the second and third roots consist of the same letter, emphasizes that the hamza is a “healthy” letter, not defective, and because of its complex pronunciation it is either changed with another letter or sometimes it is missed when pronounced and this provides ease of pronunciation. The question of writing hamza and its spelling has always been a difficult question of the language. Since Zamakhshari created his work for the quick study of Arabic and its grammar by non-Arab people, he did not go deeply into the essence of some difficult questions of Arabic language. The scientist notices that ings are added to the verbs of the actual voice gives samples conjugation of regular verbs in the past tense, and says that all regular verbs and verbs that are similar to regular verbs are conjugated in the above order. In his work, Zamahshari gave a sample of the conjugations of the verbs of the passive voice and examples of adding personal endings to such verbs, as well as conjugations of regular verbs, and verbs similar to regular verbs, empty and defective verbs. The scholar’s work not only gave conjugation of verbs, but also provided exceptions to the rules, it also highlighted a separate chapter in the interpretation of the imperative form in Arabic. The work contains information that the formation of an imperative form from verbs of the present-future tense. The article emphasizes that the verbs of surprise are formed only from the first chapter of the three-root verbs, that such forms are not formed from verbs expressing physical imperfection. Ways of expressing astonishment from doubled and defective verbs are commented. Regarding the verb conjugation, which is devoted to the chapter on the study of infinitives (masdar), the author dwells on the names of actions, ways of forming masdars from empty verbs, gives definition to real and passive participles, gives examples of their formation. This chapter provides information on the formation of real and passive participles from the derived chapters and four-root verbs, an interpretation of the adjective forms of the excellent and comparative degrees.

Since the publication of the first edition in 1990, over 40,000 entries, or 375 pages of lexical material, were added to this Second Revised Edition. It now contains approximately 280,000 key entries, constituting the most extensive listing of vocabulary in the areas of the humanities, social sciences, fine arts, technical and scientific vocabulary covering anthropology, biology, botany, chemistry, geology, medicine, etc. The extended scope of this dictionary is due to the incorporation of Russian key entries occurring in many Russian dictionaries and well-known Russian language books, as well as entries which the compiler has gathered over many years. This dictionary also contains a wealth of grammatical information and cross-references which is unmatched not only in the Russian-English dictionaries, but in the major Russian dictionaries themselves. Nouns, adjectives and verbs are covered extensively. Nouns - the genitive case ending and gender of all nouns are indicated. Wherever necessary, the nominative singular is accompanied by instances of other case endings in the singular and plural. Adjectives - adjectives are listed in the masculine nominative singular. The short predicative forms, if any, follow the masculine nominative singular. The feminine ending and neuter ending follow the masculine form ending. Verbs - the imperfective and perfective verbs are listed together with the corresponding English translation. All verbs are followed by first and second person singular endings. The first and second person singular endings are followed by other endings if a verb is irregularly conjugated. Only those imperatives are listed which may cause difficulties for students and translators. Special care has been given to masculine past tense forms, past passive participles and past adverbial participles. Shift of stress from a stressed syllable to the preceding syllable has also been clearly detailed. These examples provide a succinct indication of the way in which a comprehensive dictionary puts fuller grammatical information before the student or translator when there are irregularities in the Russian language. As with the first edition, it will be an essential tool for students, teachers, professors, libraries, translators, and research institutes of the Russian language.

The grammaticalization of the have perfect in Dutch – a corpus study of contextual extension and semantic generalization