Techno-economic analysis of long-duration energy storage and flexible power generation technologies to support high-variable renewable energy grids

Harnessing Interfacial Electron Transfer in Redox Flow Batteries

Techno-Economic Analysis of Long-Duration Energy Storage and Flexible Power Generation Technologies to Support High Variable Renewable Energy Grids

Comparing CO2 emissions impacts of electricity storage across applications and energy systems

The full decarbonization of electric grids, as planned by the European Union and other Administrations for 2050, calls for energy storage (ES) systems capable of discharging at full power over periods longer than 4-5 hours, which is the typical duration of internal storage batteries such as Li-ion and Sa-X. Such long discharge periods are already in the capability of some energy storage technologies, notably pumped-hydro (PH) ES, which was introduced at the beginning of the 20th century and today accounts worldwide for 165 GW of power capacity and 1.6 TWh of energy storage, corresponding to 96% and 99% of the global storage figures, respectively. However, a major increase in ES demand is expected in the coming decades heading to 1.25 TW and 5 TWh by 2050, which cannot be covered by PH, due to geomorphological, environmental, and technical constraints. While conventional batteries (e.g. Li-ion, Na-ion) will continue to expand to face the growing demand for fast energy storage, the increasing request for Long Duration Energy Storage will rely on other technologies and Flow Batteries are emerging as strong candidates for taking over an important share.They are presently investigated and developed in over 50 different chemistries which range from low-medium to high Technological Readiness Level (TRL). The former include still technologically immature systems typically studied at laboratory level in small single cells (1–101 W) for characterizing materials, not systems. Research is focused on some chemistries based on non-critical materials, among which: Copper-Copper, Polysulfide-Bromine, Iron-Chromium, Zinc-Cerium, Organic compounds: Quinone, Viologen, TEMPO, Polymers of various nature, and Lithium-ion flow and some larger pilot systems have been made (102 kW) but related data is often classified or not accessible. The high TRL types are often already produced and marketed, even in very large sizes (10 kW–102 MW and 10 kWh–102 MWh) using chemistries such as: Vanadium-Vanadium, Zinc-Bromine, Iron-Iron, Hydrogen-Bromine. Although the all-vanadium type exhibits the best performance, it raises geopolitical issues due to the strong localization of ore reserves which make this metal a critical raw material (CRM), e.g. in the European Union. In this scenario the research on some iron-complex-based FBs is taking momentum due to wide accessibly and low cost of the metal, despite performance still call for major improvements. Techno-economic analyses and forecasts using tools such as the levelized cost of storage (LCOS) and the net present value (NPV) can provide important insight in addressing strategically the developing research. References EASE, Energy Storage - Targets 2030 and 2050, EASE Report, Reports and Studies, June 2022.Jeremy Twitchell, Kyle DeSomber, and Dhruv Bhatnagar. Defining long duration energy storage. J. Energy Storage, 60 (2023):105787.McKinsey & Company, Net-zero power – Long duration energy storage for a renewable grid, McKinsey & Company Report, November 2022.Böhmer, C. Fenske, C. Lorenz, M. Westbroek. Long-duration energy storage - Regulatory environment and business models in Germany, Spain, France, Italy, and Great Britain. Report created for SPRIND GmbH, Aurora Energy, June 2023Search.J. Guerra, J. Zhang, J. Eichman, P. Denholm, J. Kurtz, B.-M. Hodge, The value of seasonal energy storage technologies for the integration of wind and solar power, Energy Environ. Sci., 13 (7), (2020), 1909–1922. DOI: 10.1039/d0ee00771d.A. Hunter, M.M. Penev, E.P. Reznicek, J. Eichman, N. Rustagi, S.F. Baldwin, Techno-economic analysis of long-duration energy storage and flexible power generation technologies to support high-variable renewable energy grids, Joule, 5 (2021) 2077–2101. Doi: 10.1016/j.joule.2021.06.018.A. Dowling, K.Z. Rinaldi, T.H. Ruggles, S.J. Davis, M. Yuan, F. Tong, N.S. Lewis, K. Caldeira, Role of Long-Duration Energy Storage, in Variable Renewable Electricity Systems, Joule, 4 (2020), 1907–1928.Albertus, J.S. Manser, S. Litzelman, Long-Duration Electricity Storage Applications, Economics, and Technologies Joule, 4 (1), (2020), 21 - 32, DOI: 10.1016/j.joule.2019.11.009.Sanchez-Diez, E. Ventosa, M. Guarnieri, A. Trovò, C. Flox, R. Marcilla, F. Soavi, P. Mazur, E. Aranzabe, R. Ferret, “Redox flow batteries: status and perspective towards sustainable stationary energy storage”, J. Power Sources, 481, (2021) 228804. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.228804.Poli, C. Bonaldo, M. Moretto, M. Guarnieri. Techno-economic assessment of industrial Vanadium Flow Batteries based on experimental data, Appl. Energy, 362 (2024) 122954. DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.122954.A. Kurilovich, A. Trovò, M. Pugach, K.J. Stevenson, M. Guarnieri, “Prospect of modeling industrial scale flow batteries – From experimental data to accurate overpotential identification,” Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., 167 (2022) 112559. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2022.112559.

<p indent="0mm">Increasing concerns about global warming and the climate crisis emphasize the significance of the decarbonization of electric grids and transportation with clean energy resources, such as solar, wind and hydrogen, etc. Clean energy storage and conversion technologies are critical enablers for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and addressing the energy crisis. Electrochemical energy conversion technologies (e.g., fuel cells) and energy storage technologies (e.g., redox flow batteries, lithium-based batteries, etc.) have attracted wide attention from both academic and industrial fields. However, their commercialization is greatly challenged by poor stability, insufficient power capability, high costs, etc. Polymers of intrinsic microporosity (PIMs) have an ultra-high specific surface area <sc>(&gt;500 m² g⁻¹)</sc> and abundant sub-nanometer-sized micropores <sc>(0.2−0.8 nm)</sc> from the insufficient packing of their highly rigid twisted chain structures. In addition to the advantages of high porosity, PIMs are solution-processable and low-cost, rendering them a promising material that can be widely employed as ion-exchange membranes, electroactive materials, and interface functional layers, etc., to facilitate the commercialization of the electrochemical energy storage and conversion devices. In this review, we first categorized the existing PIMs according to their synthetic mechanisms to dibenzodioxane-PIMs (such as PIM-1), Tröger’s base-PIMs (TB-PIMs) and catalytic arene-norbornene annulation (CANAL) ladder PIMs, etc. We highlighted the synthesis, functionalization methods, and the manipulation strategies of the microporous structure of typical PIMs including PIM-1 and TB-PIMs. In addition, we provided a comprehensive summarization of the characterization methods of PIMs to probe their molecular structures, pore structures, and membrane structures, as well as the advanced <italic>in-situ</italic> characterization techniques and theoretical simulations to facilitate the in-depth investigations of the ion transportation in the sub-nanometer-sized micropores of PIMs. Next, we reviewed the latest progress of the applications of PIMs in electrochemical energy conversion technologies (fuel cells including proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) and alkaline anion-exchange membrane fuel cells (AAEMFC)) and energy storage technologies (aqueous and nonaqueous redox flow batteries, aprotic Li-S batteries, etc.). First, PIMs are widely employed as efficient ion-exchange membranes owing to their high porosity and narrow distribution of the sub-nanometer-sized pore structure, which is preferential to break the trade-off of ion selectivity and ionic conductivity in conventional ion-exchange membranes. We provided a fundamental understanding of the ion transportation mechanism of PIMs compared to traditional membrane materials, and further summarized the cell-level characterization protocols, the design principles of PIM-based membranes in different working environments and the strategies for functionalization of PIMs in fuel cells, redox flow batteries and Li-S batteries. Additionally, PIMs are also developed as novel redox active materials, dendrite prohibited coatings for lithium or zinc anodes, porous carbon electrodes, and catalysts protective layer, etc., in recent years to promote the performances of the electrochemical energy conversion and storage technologies. Finally, we highlighted our perspectives on the future development directions of PIMs to guide their wide contributions in the energy storage and conversion fields. This review provides the fundamental understanding of the design strategies, characterization matrix, mechanism understandings and applications of PIMs in advanced electrochemical energy conversion and storage systems, which will pave the way of the wide applications of PIMs for a cleaner landscape of the energy utilization in the future.

How has external knowledge contributed to lithium-ion batteries for the energy transition?

Electrical energy storage systems: A comparative life cycle cost analysis

In the attempt to tackle the issue of climate change, governments across the world have agreed to set global carbon reduction targets. [...]

Driving innovation in energy and telecommunications involves leveraging next-generation energy storage and 5G technology to enhance connectivity and energy solutions. This review explores the intersection of these two domains, highlighting the importance of advancements in energy storage and 5G technology for a sustainable and connected future. Energy storage is crucial for balancing the supply and demand of electricity in modern power systems. Traditional energy storage methods, such as batteries and pumped hydro, have limitations in terms of scalability, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness. Next-generation energy storage technologies, including advanced batteries, hydrogen storage, and thermal storage, offer promising solutions to overcome these limitations. These technologies enable efficient energy storage at scale, facilitating the integration of renewable energy sources like solar and wind into the grid. By storing excess energy generated during periods of low demand, next-generation energy storage systems ensure a reliable and stable power supply, reducing the reliance on fossil fuels and lowering greenhouse gas emissions. In parallel, the evolution of telecommunications technology, particularly the advent of 5G networks, is revolutionizing connectivity and communication. 5G technology offers significantly higher data transfer speeds, lower latency, and increased network capacity compared to its predecessors. These capabilities are essential for supporting emerging technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT), autonomous vehicles, and smart grids. With 5G-enabled IoT devices, utilities can monitor energy consumption in real-time, optimize grid operations, and detect and respond to faults more efficiently. Moreover, 5G connectivity enhances the efficiency and reliability of energy storage systems by enabling seamless communication between distributed energy resources and grid operators. The convergence of next-generation energy storage and 5G technology presents numerous opportunities for driving innovation in both energy and telecommunications sectors. One of the key areas of innovation is the development of smart energy storage systems equipped with 5G connectivity. These systems can autonomously adjust their operation based on grid conditions, weather forecasts, and energy demand patterns, optimizing energy storage and distribution in real-time. Furthermore, advanced energy management algorithms leveraging artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) algorithms can optimize energy usage and storage, further improving the efficiency and reliability of the grid. Another area of innovation lies in the integration of renewable energy resources with 5G-enabled microgrids. Microgrids are localized energy systems that can operate independently or in conjunction with the main grid. By combining renewable energy sources with energy storage and 5G-enabled communication, microgrids can provide reliable, clean, and resilient power to remote or urban areas. These microgrids can also facilitate peer-to-peer energy trading, allowing consumers to buy and sell excess energy within their communities, fostering energy independence and sustainability. Furthermore, advancements in battery technology, such as solid-state batteries and flow batteries, are enhancing the performance and reliability of energy storage systems. Solid-state batteries offer higher energy density, faster charging rates, and improved safety compared to conventional lithium-ion batteries. Flow batteries, on the other hand, provide scalability and long-duration storage capabilities, making them suitable for grid-scale applications. Integrating these advanced battery technologies with 5G-enabled monitoring and control systems enhances the overall resilience and flexibility of the energy infrastructure. In addition to technological advancements, driving innovation in energy and telecommunications requires collaboration among various stakeholders, including policymakers, regulators, industry players, and research institutions. Policies and regulations should incentivize the deployment of next-generation energy storage and 5G infrastructure, promote interoperability standards, and ensure data privacy and security. Public-private partnerships can facilitate the investment and deployment of innovative solutions, while research and development initiatives can spur further technological advancements. Driving innovation in energy and telecommunications through next-generation energy storage and 5G technology is essential for building a sustainable, connected, and resilient future. By leveraging advanced energy storage systems, smart grids, and 5G-enabled communication networks, we can optimize energy usage, reduce carbon emissions, and enhance the reliability and efficiency of our energy infrastructure. Collaboration and investment across various sectors are key to unlocking the full potential of these transformative technologies and achieving a brighter, more sustainable future for generations to come. Keywords: Innovation, Energy, Telecommunications, Next-Generation, 5G technology, Enhanced connectivity.

Chapter 1 - The Role of Energy Storage in Low-Carbon Energy Systems

Pilot and demonstration projects are crucial in the commercialization of long‐duration energy storage (LDES) technologies. While the need for such projects is understood, limited research exists on how technology suppliers can successfully establish them. Existing literature discusses the conditions for LDES commercialization, but insights are scattered across sources. Moreover, articles and industry interviews from mainstream media highlight key factors behind successful pilot projects—such as funding mechanisms and partnership strategies—that are often overlooked in academic discourse. Current sources primarily focus on technical performance, offering little insight into how pilots are initiated and structured from a technology supplier's perspective. This study addresses these gaps by conducting (1) a literature review of academic and industry media sources to consolidate key insights on pilot and demonstration project establishment and (2) in‐depth interviews with potential LDES adopters to highlight customer priorities and expectations. Additionally, this paper maps and analyzes 163 electrochemical and mechanical LDES pilot and demonstration projects (&gt; 100 kW) across 25 countries, providing an overview of global deployment trends. This comprehensive synthesis of data enhances the understanding of LDES adoption, revealing 44 key considerations for achieving initial installations, thereby offering practical guidance for technology suppliers navigating the early‐stage deployment of LDES.

Higher penetration of renewable energy sources in the energy mix and increasing pressure to decarbonize society introduces new challenges. Energy storage and grid stabilization systems are necessary to address the intermittent nature of renewable energy sources (wind, solar etc.) [1]–[4]. Renewable energy storage in form of hydrogen offers an attractive option for energy storage [5], [6]. With advent of hydrogen economy and growing number of fuel cell vehicles, local production and supply of hydrogen infrastructure for refueling stations is essential [7]–[9]. An r-SOC electrochemical reactor system is capable addressing these multiple challenges of energy storage and coupling the energy storage sector with hydrogen economy sector. Electricity storage is achieved by operating such a system in electrolysis mode (reduction of H2O). Electrical energy is converted to chemical energy in form of hydrogen. The produced hydrogen can be supplied into gas grids or stored locally which can be supplied to hydrogen refueling stations. During high demand for electricity, the system can be switched to fuel cell mode during which the stored hydrogen is efficiently converted to electricity. r-SOC systems offer an interesting feasible solution for the following challenges: 1) Efficient electricity storage, 2) Grid stabilization required for intermittent renewable energy, 3) Sector coupling of energy storage sector with hydrogen economy supply chain and 4) A decentralized solution for the above challenges via e.g. hydrogen refueling stations. An r-SOC system as described above poses certain technical challenges as requirements of a stand-alone SOEC (solid oxide electrolysis cell) system and a stand-alone SOFC (solid oxide fuel cell) system are different from each other. The simplest design approach for an r-SOC system calls for thermoneutral or exothermic electrolysis operation, although this will yield low round trip efficiencies in the range of 35 % [10]. Coupling highly efficient endothermic electrolysis and exothermic fuel cell mode allows for significantly higher round trip efficiencies up to 60 %. Therefore thermal integration, storage and management between the two modes of operation are crucial. In this study, a process system study of an r-SOC electrochemical reactor system is performed. Process system analysis is performed based on experimental investigation of a commercially available r-SOC reactor carried out under pressurized conditions. Opportunities of integrating thermal energy storage are investigated. Detailed process system architectures are discussed and effects of key system operating parameters are analyzed. Achievable system roundtrip efficiencies for the different scenarios using currently available r-SOC reactor technology are quantified. Reference [1] P. J. Hall and E. J. Bain, “Energy-storage technologies and electricity generation,” Energy Policy, vol. 36, no. 12, pp. 4352–4355, Dec. 2008. [2] H. Ibrahim, A. Ilinca, and J. Perron, “Energy storage systems—Characteristics and comparisons,” Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., vol. 12, no. 5, pp. 1221–1250, Jun. 2008. [3] A. Evans, V. Strezov, and T. J. Evans, “Assessment of sustainability indicators for renewable energy technologies,” Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 1082–1088, Jun. 2009. [4] R. M. Dell and D. A. J. Rand, “Energy storage - A key technology for global energy sustainability,” J. Power Sources, vol. 100, pp. 2–17, 2001. [5] A. Sternberg and A. Bardow, “Power-to-What? - Environmental assessment of energy storage systems,” Energy Environ. Sci., vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 389–400, 2015. [6] H. Chen, T. N. Cong, W. Yang, C. Tan, Y. Li, and Y. Ding, “Progress in electrical energy storage system: A critical review,” Prog. Nat. Sci., vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 291–312, Mar. 2009. [7] J. a Turner, “Sustainable hydrogen production.,” Science, vol. 305, no. 5686, pp. 972–974, 2004. [8] M. Ball and M. Wietschel, “The future of hydrogen - opportunities and challenges,” Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 615–627, 2009. [9] G. Mulder, J. Hetland, and G. Lenaers, “Towards a sustainable hydrogen economy: Hydrogen pathways and infrastructure,” Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, vol. 32, no. 10–11, pp. 1324–1331, 2007. [10] J. Mermelstein and O. Posdziech, “Development and Demonstration of a Novel Reversible SOFC System for Utility and Micro Grid Energy Storage,” 2016, vol. 306, no. July, pp. 59–70.

Cost-optimal operation strategy for integrating large scale of renewable energy in China’s power system: From a multi-regional perspective

The issue of climate change is a crucial reason for the expansion of renewable energy sources. The use of renewable energy sources such as wind power and photovoltaics must be considered. Deploying the right energy storage technology can help overcome problems such as intermittent renewable energy or power fluctuations in distribution. A hybrid energy storage system (HESS) includes two or more storage devices with complementary electrical charge/discharge characteristics to provide the required energy and power. There are two main complementary characteristics of energy storage systems: energy density and power density. Some energy storage devices have the characteristics of high energy density but low power density and vice versa. Therefore, HESS mainly consists of technologies that can complement each other in these aspects. Both flywheel energy storage (FES) and battery energy storage (BES) technologies combined as storage technologies to support the provision of intermittent energy. The optimal HESS scheduling for renewable energy systems consisting of PV and wind turbines using nonlinear programming. The approach in this paper is to plan the power-sharing for each energy storage system based on minimizing the total project cost, operation and maintenance (O&M) cost, and life cycle of each type of energy storage technology. The optimal power sharing of the two internal energy storage technologies in HESS achieve by considering the ramp rates of BES and FES.

Electrochemical energy storage is a process that utilizes chemical reactions to store and release electrical energy in the form of chemical energy. These include lead-acid, lithium-ion, flow, sodium-sulfur batteries, etc., while electrochemical energy storage materials and technologies are the keys to solving the utilization, conversion, and storage of clean energy. In order to solve the problem that the current energy storage technology has an extensive range of energy storage frequency fluctuations in the application process, this paper conducts research on a comprehensive micro-energy storage technology based on multi-type electrochemistry, which improves the stability of energy storage. Based on the introduction of multi-type electrochemical technology, MXene (Ti3C2) was selected as the dispersion liquid, and PVA was used as the gel electrolyte to complete both preparations. The device’s fabrication and assembly are completed based on calculating the rated power, rated capacity, and other parameters of the micro energy storage capacitor. Aiming at the ultra-low frequency oscillation problem that may exist in the energy storage process, this paper develops a micro energy storage control method that participates in primary frequency modulation. The comparison experiment proves that the frequency fluctuation of the new energy storage technology is within the controllable range in practical application, which can effectively improve the stability of energy storage.