Abstract
Chronic stress is a combination of nonspecific adaptive reactions of the body to the influence of various adverse stress factors which disrupt its homeostasis, and it is also a corresponding state of the organism’s nervous system (or the body in general). We hypothesized that chronic stress may be one of the causes occurence of several molecular and cellular types of stress. We analyzed literary sources and considered most of these types of stress in our review article. We examined genes and mutations of nuclear and mitochondrial genomes and also molecular variants which lead to various types of stress. The end result of chronic stress can be metabolic disturbance in humans and animals, leading to accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), oxidative stress, energy deficiency in cells (due to a decrease in ATP synthesis) and mitochondrial dysfunction. These changes can last for the lifetime and lead to severe pathologies, including neurodegenerative diseases and atherosclerosis. The analysis of literature allowed us to conclude that under the influence of chronic stress, metabolism in the human body can be disrupted, mutations of the mitochondrial and nuclear genome and dysfunction of cells and their compartments can occur. As a result of these processes, oxidative, genotoxic, and cellular stress can occur. Therefore, chronic stress can be one of the causes forthe occurrence and development of neurodegenerative diseases and atherosclerosis. In particular, chronic stress can play a large role in the occurrence and development of oxidative, genotoxic, and cellular types of stress.
Highlights
Chronic stress is a combination of nonspecific adaptive reactions of the body to the effects of various adverse stress factors that disrupt its homeostasis, as well as the corresponding state of the nervous system of the body [1,2]
Emotional, and/or physical demands rise higher than regulatory possibilities of a body [8,10] and the influence on an organism can vary depending on the frequency, magnitude, and length of the stress
Chronic stress is linked with several psychiatric illnesses, for example, depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), substance use disorder (SUD), and personality disorders [8,13]
Summary
Chronic stress is a combination of nonspecific adaptive reactions of the body to the effects of various adverse stress factors that disrupt its homeostasis, as well as the corresponding state of the nervous system of the body (or the body as a whole) [1,2]. One possible mechanism for this process is that chronic stress causes endothelial injury, directly activating macrophages, promoting foam cell formation and triggering the formation of atherosclerotic plaques [14,15,16]. This mechanism involves numerous variables, which include inflammation, signal pathways, lipid metabolism and endothelial function. In response to chronic stress, changes in an individual’s metabolism can occur (increased levels of lipids and glucose in blood) This prepares the organism to enhanced muscular activity, which was necessary in the struggle for the existence of the individual in ancient times. In our review article we would like to present a classification of molecular and cell types of stress from the point of view of medical molecular geneticists
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