Some Aromatic and Medicinal Plants from Bingöl (Turkey)

Renewed interest in medicinal and aromatic plants during the past 20 years has brought surging markets and production opportunities for these plant species. To enhance and maintain market growth, however, MAP production systems, whether cultivated or collected, will need to ensure sustainable production of quality plant materials that have been wholesomely grown and processed. The growing familiarity of western consumers with medicinal and aromatic plants places a premium on standardized plant materials that are organically produced and meet expectations for efficacy. Currently, market demand for MAP is nurtured by consumer demographics and by favorable impressions of bioactivity, but this demand remains susceptible to myths, traditions, and science reports associated with the plant materials. By addressing the problems of standardization and verifiable marker compounds along with issues such as plant domestication, conservation, biotechnology, and others that affect plant cultivation, producers and processors can assure acceptable products reach the marketplace and crop production opportunities will continue to grow. Introduction A recent resurgence of interest in medicinal plants in many Western nations, the continued dependence of people in much of the world on these species, and the advent of a globalized economy has brought sustainability challenges to the medicinal plant trade. The modern market for medicinal plants has, in general, grown over the past 15 years (Fig. 1), but remains fragile, subject to governmental regulations, research findings, and media publicity along with the usual factors associated with supply and demand. Indeed, many challenges to the continued growth of the market exist, including appropriate education of consumers, assurances of high quality products, and availability of a sustainable supply of plant material. The development of patentable, synthetic pharmaceuticals in the 1930s and 1940s in America and other Western countries (Table 1) resulted in the active abandonment of medicinal plants in health care, leaving new generations of both health care practitioners and the general populace with only a limited history, culture, and understanding about the appropriate use of medicinal species for preventing and treating human ailments (Craker and Gardner, 2003). Consumer confidence in pharmaceutical drug development, enhanced by the discovery of antibiotics and vaccinations that prevent or treat many diseases has lately decreased as drug costs escalate and major health problems, such as cancer, AIDS, cardiovascular disease, and numerous other problems continue to exist. An array of interests from medical professionals essentially committed to “modern” pharmaceuticals, consumers seeking alternative health care options, and herbalists promoting the use of medicinal and aromatic plants can convert challenges to market opportunities if growers and processors provide safe, useful plant products and educate consumers and health care professionals on benefits of medicinal plant products. Education of consumers and healthcare practitioners about the correct use of medicinal and aromatic plants and plant extracts will help ensure the continued recognition of the value of these products. For example, Western consumers accustomed Proc. WOCMAP III, Vol 2: Conservation Cultivation & Sustainable Use of MAPs Eds.: A. Jatisatienr, T. Paratasilpin, S. Elliott, V. Anusarnsunthorn, D. Wedge, L.E. Craker and Z.E. Gardner Acta Hort. 676, ISHS 2005 26 to taking a pharmaceutical drug and experiencing the effect of the drug within minutes to hours must learn that an herbal product that may take much longer to exhibit noticeable activity. Similarly, consumers and producers must replace the concept of taking drugs to treat pre-existing conditions with the concept of taking medicinal plants to improve general health and to treat both clinical and sub-clinical conditions. If consumers and health care providers are unfamiliar with the concepts of medicinal herb use, they cannot be expected to seek, recommend, or use these plants as medicine. Consumer Demographics As with any commodity, sales and use of medicinal plant products are influenced by the type of people that use these products. Indeed, a good share of the growth in sales of medicinal and aromatic plants and other natural products over the past 15 years can be attributed to the growth of certain demographic groups. Immigrants from Asia and Latin America have popularized a new palette of herbs and spices in restaurants and homes in the United States. This popularization has been such that U.S. spice consumption grew from 2 pounds per capita in 1976 to 3.2 pounds per capita in 1995 (Anonymous, 1998) (Fig. 2). Contributing to the increase in spice consumption is a change in lifestyle in many industrialized nations. The movement of women, historically the people responsible for meal preparation, from the home to workplace has altered traditional roles, requiring easier food preparation within the limited time available after work. In these instances, spices are frequently used to enhance the flavor of homemade and prepared meals. A highly significant trend among consumers is the increase in consumers interested in environmental issues, the so-called “green” consumers (Roper, 2002). Such consumers are willing to pay a premium for eco-friendly products, including organic foods, recycled products, and herbal remedies. These consumers value natural alternatives to conventional products including foods and medicines, thus medicinal plant products and natural food flavorings are favored by these consumers. Media Influences Media stories featuring medicinal plants appear highly influential in consumer demand and acceptance of medicinal plants. While medicinal plants were featured positively in several highly publicized stories in the late 1990s (Greenwald, 1998; Johnson et al., 1997), many of the more recent stories have been negative with concerns focused on several plant species (such as kava and ephedra) (Burros, 2002; Strugatch, 2002), with few headlines highlighting the benefits or proper use of medicinal plants. Most of the negative stories are concerned with the lack of standardization of dose or with reports of results from poorly designed research studies (Brody, 1999). Product Quality The popularization of medicinal plants in Western nations during the 1990s encouraged the formation of numerous new companies producing herbal medicines. Unfortunately, the quality of the plant materials (including differences due to natural variation, cultivation practices, and post harvest handling) and processing vary among companies, and thus the quality of oils and other extracts is highly variable. Surveys by independent laboratories have demonstrated significant variation in the quality and reported content of packaged herbal remedies (Anonymous, 2001; ConsumerLab, 2002). News reporting of such variation undoubtedly lowers consumer and health care provider confidence in medicinal plant products. Standardization of herbal products is the most commonly suggested solution for overcoming the natural variation of constituents in plant material. While standardization can help ensure product quality, recognized drawbacks to standardization exist. For example, in many plant species the active constituents of the species are not fully known. Secondly, a combination of plant constituents may be responsible for biological action of the plant or plant extract. Yet, if standard guidelines for marker compounds can be recognized and if plant selection, cultivation methodology, and processing can be

The concept of rural development, it stems from many factors and variables circumstantial of area as rural tourism, agritourism, products of territory, in our case the medicinal and aromatic plants. In this paper we estimate the land fund by purpose and destination of use is grouped into three categories, where the third, with about 53 thousand hectares, is less fertile, affected by erosion, and should be used with priority. Their expansion results to be 67% in mountain areas, 31% in hilly areas and only 2% in lowland areas. The more effective alternative according to our agriculture theory and practice is that of the aromatic and medicinal plants (medicinal and aromatic plants) that have multi-dimensional cultivating interests for our country, conditioned by the climatic and soil conditions as well as the economic and organizational conditions of a range of stakeholders related to the aromatic and medicinal plants, such as their growers, collectors, aggregators, processors and traders (exporters). In terms of our country the aromatic and medicinal plants have two main situations: From the wild, outdoor and, b) Cultivated, in increasingly growing areas, in different areas and with differentiated practices. Among the the aromatic and medicinal plants in complexity, sage, thyme and oregano have obvious superiority in area planted and the production realized out of their total. The advantage of the aromatic and medicinal plants results in full use of agricultural land, in a broader employment of free labor force (mainly women), increase of income, increase of their exports, which currently account for about 52-54 % of the total that agriculture as a whole realizes in the last years, etc.

At the University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine in Cluj-Napoca there is an old and valuable tradition regarding the knowledge and valorification of medicinal and aromatic plants. In this institution, a Medicinal Plant Resort was established (in 1904), with activity until between the two world war period, being known and appreciated in the country and abroad. Starting with 1970 (50 years ago), the scientific researches in the field of medicinal plants were resumed at USAMV Cluj-Napoca, within the Phytotechnics department of this institution. The Cluj Department of Phytotechnics has carried out multi-annual research contracts with the Fundulea Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research Department, since its establishment (in 1975) and has maintained scientific collaborations with the Faculty of Pharmacy from Cluj-Napoca, with Plafar Cluj etc. Since 1993, when The Hop and Medicinal Plants Culture Research Center was established at the Cluj Phytotechnics Department, the investigations in the field of medicinal and aromatic plants have diversified. Under the shield of this research center, since its establishment (in 1993), the journal "Hop and Medicinal Plants" is published, which publishes scientific papers on medicinal and aromatic plants, made at USAMV Cluj-Napoca and other institutions of research in the country and abroad. This paper presents the evolution of investigations in the field of medicinal and aromatic plants within USAMV Cluj-Napoca, highlighting the studies conducted from 1970 to the present. During this period (for five decades)8are presented the doctoral theses referring to medicinal and aromatic plants defended in USAMV Cluj-Napoca. Finally, the paper includes books of medicinal and aromatic plants developed and published by teachers from Phytotechnics in Cluj.

The effects of nutrients on the growth and quality of medicinal and aromatic plants, affecting athletic abilities

Medicinal and aromatic plants are offered in a wide variety of products on the market. At least every fourth flowering plant is used. The enormous demand in botanicals results in a huge trade from local to international level. In the 1990s, the reported annual world-wide importation of pharmaceutical plants amounted on average to 400,000 t valued at USD 1,224 million. The international trade is dominated by only few countries. About 80 % of the world-wide imports and exports are allotted to only 12 countries with the dominance of temperate Asian and European countries. Whereas Japan and the Republic of Korea are the main consumers of pharmaceutical plants, and China and India are the world’s leading producing nations, Hong Kong, the USA and Germany stand out as important trade centres. Until now, the production of botanicals relies to a large degree on wildcollection. However, utilization and commerce of wild plant resources are not detrimental in themselves, but, for example, the increasing commercial collection, largely unmonitored trade, and habitat loss lead to an incomparably growing pressure on plant populations in the wild. World-wide an estimated 9,000 medicinal plant species are threatened. Conservation concepts and measures which have to meet future supply and the provisions of species conservation range from resource management, cultivation, shifting processing from consumer to source countries, species conservation to trade restrictions or even trade bans. Medicinal and aromatic plants are of high priority for conservation action, as wild-crafting will certainly continue to play a significant role in their future trade: the sustainable commercial use of their biological resources may provide a financial instrument for nature conservation. INTRODUCTION Phytopharmaceuticals, also some pharmaceuticals, herbal remedies, dietary supplements, homeopathics, medicinal and herbal teas, liqueurs, spirits, sweets, aromas and essences, perfumes, cosmetics, colouring agents, varnishes, fireworks, and detergents – plant-based products offered in a wide variety on the market. Whereas in some goods the herbal ingredients are evident, e.g. in teas or in herbal remedies where they are declared on the packaging, in other products the botanically source is more secret: the bitter taste of Campari is based on the Common Centaury (Centaurium erythraea), and the fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) contains steroid-saponins which are extracted for use in oral contraceptives. The use of botanical raw material is in many cases much cheaper than to use chemical alternative substances. As a consequence, there is an enormous demand in botanicals resulting in a huge trade, on local, regional, national and international level for domestic use and for commercial trade. Different aspects are associated with the trade in medicinal and aromatic plant material, the trade structure, trade volumes and values, the herbs used and their production, the ecological and socio-economic impacts of the trade, and the management of the botanical resources. Proc. XXVI IHC – Future for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Eds. L.E. Craker et al. Acta Hort. 629, ISHS 2004 Publication supported by Can. Int. Dev. Agency (CIDA) 178 MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS IN USE Species in Use World-wide, it is estimated that up to 70,000 species are used in folk medicine (Farnsworth and Soejarto, 1991). The WHO reports over 21,000 plant taxa used for medicinal purposes (Groombridge, 1992). Unfortunately, there is no idea how many species are used in the other areas of use, like cosmetics, spirits or aromas which makes determining exactly the number of all medicinal and aromatic plant species used worldwide impossible. However, it can be stated, that at least every fourth plant is in use, a calculation based upon the estimated total number of 300-350,000 flowering plants. The number of medicinal and aromatic plant species used in some regions are impressive: In India, which is said to have probably the oldest, richest and most diverse cultural traditions in the use of medicinal plants, about 7,500 species are used in ethnomedicines (Shankar and Majumdar, 1997) which is half of the country’s 17,000 Indian native plant species. In China, the total number of medicinal plants used in different parts of the country add up to some 6,000 species according to Xiao (1991) and to over ten thousand according to He and Sheng (1997). Of these, approximately 1,000 plant species are commonly used in Chinese medicine, and about half of these are considered as the main medicinal plants (He and Sheng, 1997). In Africa, over 5,000 plant species are known to be used for medicinal purposes (Iwu, 1993). In Europe with its long tradition in the use of botanicals, about 2,000 medicinal and aromatic plant species are used on a commercial basis (Lange, 1998). In Germany, Lange (1996) identified not less than 1,500 taxa as sources of medicinal and aromatic plant material. In Spain, it is estimated that 800 medicinal and aromatic plant species are used of which 450 species are associated with commercial use (Blanco and Breaux, 1997; Lange, 1998). Geographical Origin of the Species in Use Herbs used in a country can be either indigenous or native to other regions or even continents. The share of both plant groups depends on the country’s cultural preferences, importance of traditional medicines, history, trade relations, and of course of the wealth or poverty of a country. Traditional medicines are playing an important role in many parts of the world. In south and southeast Asia, the Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha medicines are widely distributed and based on not less than 400, 500 respective 1,800 native Indian plant species (Shankar and Majumdar, 1997). The TCM, the traditional medicine of eastern Asia, relies in most cases on indigenous plant species. Traditional healers in many African countries rely on local or at most regional plant material (Marshall, 1998). In Bulgaria, about 750 native plant species, or 20 % of the total flora, are used in folk medicine. Of these, 200300 species are most commonly used (Hardalova, 1997). Further, in Albania, 205 native plant species are used as sources of botanicals (Vaso, 1997; Lange, 1998). In Hungary, some 270 native medicinal and aromatic plant taxa are used, 180-200 of which are officially recognised by the Hungarian Pharmacopoeia (Bernath, 1996). Ozhatay et al. (1997) list a total of 337 native taxa that have been commercially traded in Turkey since at least 1990 (Lange, 2001). From the French pharmacopoeia and lists of medicines Goi et al. (1997; Lange, 1998) noted some 900 taxa, of which almost half are native to Europe. This means, that many countries rely on a major part on their own plant diversity. Many of them cannot afford to import foreign botanicals, finished herbal products or even phytopharmaceuticals and the country’s own “biodiversity” is mainly offered in a crude form or at most as little processed products on the market. On the other side, there are the developed countries which use besides indigenous plant species a lot of non-native species and process them in their well developed pharmaceutical, cosmetic and extract-producing industry. Accordingly, the plant material is offered to the consumers as mainly packed and finished products, and the crude material plays a minor role in the retail trade. This features apply above all to the highly

Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) have become a part of traditional system of medicines and have gained importance, more so in today’s world. According to the estimate of World Health Organization (WHO), about 80% of the population of developing world are making use of traditional medicines. The medicinal plants have been used for widespread purposes since ancient times in countries particularly India, China, Greece, Persia etc. In India, according to a report of AICEP, Anthropological Survey of India, 1994, it is estimated that over 7,500 species of medicinal plants are used for therapeutic uses. The major floral species which are widely used as medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) include Ephedra gerardiana Wall., Rauvolfia serpentina, Swertia chirata, Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle, Rhododendron anthopogon D. Dun., Peganum harmala L. etc. The widespread use of these medicinal plants for both internal consumption and export purposes have led to their large-scale exploitation, resulting in loss of biological diversity (both at genetic and species level). Most of the medicinal plants like Rauvolfia serpentina, Gentiana kurro, Alpinia galanga, Saussurea lappa have become endangered and threatened. Overexploitation along with lack of initiatives from government bodies, absence of proper management systems and loss of traditional knowledge are some of the factors responsible for rapid biodiversity loss. Indigenous people and biodiversity complement each other and the former has played an important role in conservation of biodiversity since time immemorial. The rural communities over the period of time have gathered a pool of indigenous knowledge/know-how for cultivation of the medicinal plants and their propagation. In the meantime, the importance of local knowledge systems in conservation and preservation of the germplasm of medicinal plants have also attained global significance. In India, various programmes on medicinal plants and their conservation based on traditional knowledge are being carried out by the local people, Non Government Organizations (NGOs), Community Based Organizations (CBOs) at various grass root levels such as the districts and villages. Though an unorganized sector, the local people are playing their role in the propagation as well as conservation of the medicinal plants through the application of the concepts of herbal gardens and local “mandis” (markets). There is a need to strengthen these linkages and build upon the indigenous knowledge base of the local people through proper documentation and building of a strong database. This paper deliberates upon the importance (therapeutic, ecological and economic) of medicinal plants and threats to their biodiversity. The communication also describes the details of some of the local efforts, which are being carried out at local levels in India for conservation of medicinal plants through the use of indigenous knowledge of traditional medicines. The paper also highlights the need to integrate indigenous knowledge into national policies and strengthen the participation of the indigenous communities in order to harness maximum potential of medicinal plant biodiversity along with sustainable management of these resources.

Bu çalışmada, Covid-19 (Kovid-19) pandemisine karşı sağlık çalışanları tarafından, geleneksel olarak kullanılan tıbbi ve aromatik bitkilerin değerlendirilmesi amaçlanmıştır. Araştırma tanımlayıcı modelde tasarlanmış olup 10 Temmuz-31 Aralık 2021 tarihleri arasında gerçekleştirilmiştir. Türkiye’deki sağlık çalışanları araştırma evrenini oluşturup basit rastgele örnekleme yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Verilerin toplanmasında, alan uzmanlarınca hazırlanan yarı yapılandırılmış anket formu kullanılmıştır. Demografik bilgiler ve tıbbi ve aromatik bitkiler olmak üzere iki kısımdan oluşan anket, Google forms üzerinden online olarak uygulanmıştır. Verilerin analizinde SPSS 24 paket programı kullanılmış, yüzdelik ve frekans hesaplamaları yapılmıştır. Araştırmaya, Türkiye genelinde 1320 sağlık çalışanı katılmış olup, katılımcıların %55’i kadın, %45’i erkektir, meslek gruplarına göre dağılımı; %18’i hemşire, %16’sı sağlık memuru, %12’si hekim, %10’u ATT, %9’u paramedik, %9’u ebe, %8’i tıbbi sekreter, %7’si eczacı, %6’sı psikolog ve %5’i diğer (sosyal çalışmacı, müdür, diş hekimi vs.) şeklindedir. Çalışma sonucuna göre; sağlık çalışanlarının %77’si Covid-19 pandemisinde tıbbi ve aromatik bitkilerin tamamen ve kısmen etkili olduğuna inandığını belirtmiş ve bunların %63’ü şifalı bitkileri kullanmıştır. Kullanılan bitkiler içinde kekik/Origanum sp. (%99), narenciye/Citrus sp. (%94) ve sarımsak/Allium sativum (%93) en yüksek düzeyde tercih edilmiştir. Tıbbi ve aromatik bitkilerin kullanımı hakkındaki bilgilerin en çok sosyal medya (%99) aracılığıyla elde edildiği görülmüştür. Katılımcıların %94’ü bitkileri aktardan temin etmiştir. Bitkiler daha çok demlenerek (%99) ve çiğ gıda (%91) şeklinde tüketilmektedir. Bu süreçte tıbbi ve aromatik bitki kullananların %63’ü Covid-19’a yakalanmadığını bildirmiştir. Sonuç olarak, Covid-19 sürecinde sağlık çalışanlarının büyük çoğunluğunun tıbbi ve aromatik bitkilerin etkisine inandığı ve şifalı bitkileri kullanmayı tercih ettikleri ortaya çıkarılmıştır. Bu çalışma modern tıp ilmi almış bireylerin tamamlayıcı tıbba olan bakışını yansıtması açısından önemli bir değere sahiptir.

Background Medicinal plants have long played an integral role in traditional healing systems and are crucial for meeting primary healthcare needs. This study aimed to investigate the use of medicinal plants in phytotherapy in the Ketama region of Northern Morocco. Methods Ethnobotanical data and ancestral knowledge regarding plants were collected through a field survey conducted from August 2019 to July 2021. The data were gathered using a standardized questionnaire, as well as through semistructured interviews and focus groups. Various ethnobotanical indices were applied to analyse the information collected. Results A comprehensive inventory identified a total of 81 plant species, belonging to 40 families and 65 genera. These species are used primarily to treat a variety of diseases. Notably, digestive disorders ranked first among the diseases treated, with an ICF value of 0.618. Rosmarinus officinalis L., Thymus serpyllum L., and Origanum compactum Benth exhibited the highest UV values among medicinal plants. Leaves were the most used part of the plant part (50.28%), and the decoction method was the most recommended preparation, with oral administration being the preferred mode of application of the remedy. Conclusion The Ketama region boasts a rich abundance of medicinal and aromatic plants, as evident from the quantitative analysis highlighting the significant usage of Rosmarinus officinalis L., Thymus serpyllum L., and Origanum compactum Benth. by the local population. However, further research in the form of pharmacological studies is necessary to validate their therapeutic effects.

Since thousands years back approximately around 900 BC, medicinal plants are considered as a source of many biomolecules with therapeutic potential. Herbal medicines are considered as safer, better, physiologically compatible and costeffective. The oldest evidence of medicinal and aromatic plants depicts that with the emergence of human civilization, plants have been considered as the main source to heal and cure various serious ailments. It has been proven that the secondary metabolites e.g. alkaloid, glycosides, flavonoides, steroids etc present in the medicinal plants possesses ability to prevent occurrence of some of the diseases, means medicinal plants acts as a “preventive medicine”. Medicinal plants have a paramount importance and a great interest due to its pharmaceutical, cosmetic and nutritional values. Some plants are also considered as an important source of nutrition and are known to have a variety of compounds with potential therapeutic properties. India is the principal repository of large number of medicinal and aromatic plants or we can say India is one of the rich mega-biodiversity countries of the world. Medicinal plants are “backbone” of traditional medicinal system (TMS). Crude drugs are usually dried parts of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) such as roots, stems, wood, bark, seeds, fruits, flowers, leaves, rhizomes, whole plant etc. that form the essential raw material for the production of medicines in various systems of Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, Tibatian, Tribal and Homeopathy. According to the survey of the World Health Organization (WHO), about 80% of the world population are using herbs and other traditional medicines for their primary healthcare and have established three kinds of herbal medicines: raw plant material, processed plant material, and herbal products. Now days, variety of available herbs are used throughout the world and they continue to promote good health. As the benefits from medicinal and aromatic plants are recognized, these plants will have a special role for humans in the future. The present review on medicinal and aromatic plants revealed similar combination of studies.

BackgroundThis study explores medicinal plant knowledge and use among Muslim women in the city of Mecca, Saudi Arabia. Ethnobotanical research in the region has focused on rural populations and male herbal healers in cities, and based on these few studies, it is suggested that medicinal plant knowledge may be eroding. Here, we document lay, female knowledge of medicinal plants in an urban centre, interpreting findings in the light of the growing field of urban ethnobotany and gendered knowledge and in an Islamic context.MethodsFree-listing, structured and semi-structured interviews were used to document the extent of medicinal plant knowledge among 32 Meccan women. Vernacular names, modes of preparation and application, intended therapeutic use and emic toxicological remarks were recorded. Women were asked where they learnt about medicinal plants and if and when they preferred using medicinal plants over biomedical resources. Prior informed consent was always obtained. We compared the list of medicinal plants used by these Meccan women with medicinal plants previously documented in published literature.ResultsOne hundred eighteen vernacular names were collected, corresponding to approximately 110 plants, including one algae. Of these, 95 were identified at the species level and 39 (41%) had not been previously cited in Saudi Arabian medicinal plant literature. Almost one half of the plants cited are food and flavouring plants. Meccan women interviewed learn about medicinal plants from their social network, mass media and written sources, and combine biomedical and medicinal plant health care. However, younger women more often prefer biomedical resources and learn from written sources and mass media.ConclusionsThe fairly small number of interviews conducted in this study was sufficient to reveal the singular body of medicinal plant knowledge held by women in Mecca and applied to treat common ailments. Plant availability in local shops and markets and inclusion in religious texts seem to shape the botanical diversity used by the Meccan women interviewed, and the use of foods and spices medicinally could be a global feature of urban ethnobotany. Ethnobotanical knowledge among women in Islamic communities may be changing due to access to mass media and biomedicine. We recognise the lack of documentation of the diversity of medicinal plant knowledge in the Arabian Peninsula and an opportunity to better understand gendered urban and rural knowledge.

BackgroundThis paper explores patterns of women’s medicinal plant knowledge and use in an urban area of the Brazilian Amazon. Specifically, this paper examines the relationship between a woman’s age and her use and knowledge of medicinal plants. It also examines whether length of residence in three different areas of the Amazon is correlated with a woman’s use and knowledge of medicinal plants. Two of the areas where respondents may have resided, the jungle/seringal and farms/colonias, are classified as rural. The third area (which all of the respondents resided in) was urban.MethodsThis paper utilizes survey data collected in Rio Branco, Brazil. Researchers administered the survey to 153 households in the community of Bairro da Luz (a pseudonym). The survey collected data on phytotherapeutic knowledge, general phytotherapeutic practice, recent phytotherapeutic practice and demographic information on age and length of residence in the seringal, on a colonia, and in a city. Bivariate correlation coefficients were calculated to assess the inter-relationships among the key variables. Three dependent variables, two measuring general phytotherapeutic practice and one measuring phytotherapeutic knowledge were regressed on the demographic factors.ResultsThe results demonstrate a relationship between a woman’s age and medicinal plant use, but not between age and plant knowledge. Additionally, length of residence in an urban area and on a colonia/farm are not related to medicinal plant knowledge or use. However, length of residence in the seringal/jungle is positively correlated with both medicinal plant knowledge and use.ConclusionsThe results reveal a vibrant tradition of medicinal plant use in Bairro da Luz. They also indicate that when it comes to place of residence and phytotherapy the meaningful distinction is not rural versus urban, it is seringal versus other locations. Finally, the results suggest that phytotherapeutic knowledge and use should be measured separately since one may not be an accurate proxy for the other.

Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPS) represent a consistent part of the natural biodiversity endowment of many countries in Africa. The role and contributions of medicinal plants to healthcare, local economies, cultural integrity and ultimately the well-being of people, particularly the rural poor, have been increasingly acknowledged over the last decade. The demands of the majority of the populace for medicinal plants have been met by indiscriminate harvesting of spontaneous flora, including those in forests. This has resulted in severe loss of habitat and genetic diversity. The utilization of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) as a source of fuel, building material, food, fodder, and fibre, in African countries has, however, led to a resurgence of natural product- based industries and pharmaceutical products. This had been spurred by the interests of the developed countries for traditional medicine and natural products. Furthermore, many African medicinal plants are well-known in the international markets, e.g. Ancistrocladus abbreivatus, a Cameroun plant with anti-HIV potential. Therefore, sustainable management and conservation of these endangered medicinal plant species are important not only because of their value as potential therapeutics, but also due to worldwide reliance on traditional medicinal plants for health. Effective conservation strategies for medicinal plant should take place within four main areas: in-situ andex-situ conservation, education and research. Saving Africa’s medicinal plant resources from extinction calls for intensive management and conservation, more research and increased level of public awareness about our vanishing heritage. Key words: African, health care delivery, medicine, harvesting.

BackgroundThe Guoshan Yao, a subgroup of the Yao ethnic minority in China, inhabit the biodiverse Nanling Mountain region. Their traditional knowledge (TK) of medicinal plants is increasingly threatened by socio-economic development, generational knowledge loss, and conservation policies. This study documents the medicinal plant diversity, and usage trends, analyzes TK transmission pathways, assesses influencing factors on the medicinal plant use knowledge and compares use knowledge with other Yao groups.MethodsA total of 86 respondents (aged 20–90) from Guoshan Yao households were interviewed in the villages of Nanling National Nature Reserve, Guangdong, China. The Relative Importance (RI) index of the recorded plant species was calculated, negative binomial regression was used to assess factors influencing medicinal plant use knowledge, and the Jaccard index of similarity (JI) was used for the cross cultural analysis.ResultsA total of 61.6% of respondents relied on medicinal plants for primary healthcare; however, 41.8% of respondents reported declining trend in this practice. We documented 224 medicinal plants from 188 genera and 90 families. The most common therapeutic use was for traumatic injuries and orthopedic conditions (71 species, 31.7%). Among the recorded species, Polygala japonica had the highest RI value (2). The negative binomial regression indicated that medicinal plant use knowledge was significantly associated with the source of knowledge transfer, with vertical and multiple sources being significant. Cross-cultural analysis with the Yao of Guangxi and Hunan showed that knowledge of medicinal plants is quite similar among the Yao of Gongcheng Guangxi (JI = 0.18) .ConclusionThe Guoshan Yao maintain substantial TK of medicinal plants, the conservation of which depends on vertical and multiple sources knowledge transmission systems. To conserve this knowledge, we recommend promoting the dissemination of knowledge beyond familial boundaries through community awareness programs, and inter-generational interaction.

Headspace (HS)-solid-phase microextraction (SPME) has assumed an ever increasing importance as a technique for HS sampling to study the composition of the HS of medicinal and aromatic plants. HS-SPME has mainly been applied for (a) studying the composition of the volatile fraction, including in addition to or as an alternative to other sampling techniques; (b) monitoring the biological phenomena involved with the volatile fraction of a plant; (c) discriminating between species, subspecies, varieties, cultivars, or chemotypes; and (d) quality control of plant samples. A review of 108 articles published during 2000-2005 is presented covering the use of HS-SPME in the field of aromatic and medicinal plants, selection of the most effective fiber and sampling conditions, comparison of HS-SPME and other volatile fraction sample preparation techniques, and the advantages and limits of HS-SPME when applied to medicinal and aromatic plants.

ABSTRACTFor the production of essential oils and aromatics to be possible throughout the year, it is necessary to continuously supply the plant raw material to the industry or store the plant material for a designated time. However, to allow the plant material to remain in storage with a high quality, it is essential to reduce its water content by drying. This has motivated the oil extraction industries to demand a better yield and quality from the drying process and raw materials, necessitating fast and efficient evaluation parameters. Thus, the aim of this study was to develop an electric conductivity test for evaluating the quality of aromatic and medicinal plants and to quantify the essential oil yield of the dry vegetable material. The drying experiments were conducted at different temperatures and air velocities by altering the control of the drying conditions. Various aromatic plants with different plant mass, volume of deionized water, and temperature of the vegetal material were examined by the electric conductivity test. The qualities of the fresh and dry plants were compared through these tests and yields of essential oil. Increase in the drying air temperature influenced the increase in the dehydration rate of the aromatic and medicinal plants. Higher drying temperatures decreased the physical quality as evaluated by the electric conductivity test and essential oil yield of the aromatic and medicinal plants. The parameters for validation of the electric conductivity test methodology in aromatic and medicinal plants were defined as an exposure time of 33 h, 5 g of fresh plant material in 75 mL of deionized water, 1 g of dry plant material in 50 mL of deionized water, and temperature of 25°C. The electric conductivity test was demonstrated as an appropriate method to be used in the quality control of aromatic plants in essential oil extraction industries. The use of the electric conductivity test will enable the oil extraction industry to monitor the yield and quality of the essential oils extracted from the aromatic plants after drying and storage.