MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS: TRADE, PRODUCTION, AND MANAGEMENT OF BOTANICAL RESOURCES

Aromatic and medicinal plants are considered to be key sources of novel medicines and pharmaceuticals all around the world. Only 20% of people in industrialized countries derive their medicine directly from plants, whereas 80% of people in developing countries rely solely on herbal medicines. The use of aromatic and medicinal plants, along with their bioactive compounds, is quickly spreading around the world, as the desire for natural health products is growing. Indigenous vegetation is being threatened by the indiscriminate gathering and overexploitation of medicinal and aromatic plants in the wild. It is critical to protect these species and encourage the long-term usage of aromatic and medicinal plant species in the future.

The present study was carried out to document the ethnobotanical uses of medicinal and aromatic plants in Chopal forest division of Himachal Pradesh. The information was collected from local communities including traditional healers of villages from all seven forest ranges of Chopal forest division through semi-structured interview during July, 2015 to September, 2017. A total of 120 ethnobotanical plant species of 107 genera belonging to sixty one families were recorded from the study area. Out of these, 115 species were angiosperms, three gymnosperms, one pteridophyte and one fungus species. Rosaceae was recorded as the most dominant family with nine plant species followed by Lamiaceae, Leguminosae Amaranthaceae and Compositae. Among the different growth forms, herbs shared maximum growth form followed by shrubs, trees, climbers and pteridophyte. The recorded medicinal and aromatic plant species were used for treating various common ailments. Hedychium spicatum was reported as most used species followed by Artemisia vulgaris, Angelica glauca, Lactuca macrorhiza, Delphinium vestitum, Viola pilosa, Berberis lycium, etc. Present findings indicate that the people of Chopal forest division possess appreciable knowledge about the traditional use of medicinal and aromatic plant species. However, diminishing trend in knowledge about the medicinal plants was recorded. Only sixty percent people had knowledge about medicinal and aromatic plant species use. Hence, documentation of the traditional knowledge has tremendous importance which will help its preservation and also provide opportunity for using these plants in future improvement programme.

Throughout history, herbal medicine has played a vital role in understanding and treating various ailments in humans and animals. The medicinal aromatic plant species, with their chemical compounds, offer potential solutions for addressing numerous diseases. Enhancing the genetic makeup of these plant species for both medicinal and economic purposes is now imperative. Mutation breeding is a significant strategy, having led to the development of nearly 3500 plant species. Polyploidy induction, doubling chromosomes, can result in larger and more valuable plant parts with medicinal and economic value. Plant tissue culture (PTC) is a crucial breeding technique, allowing for artificial polyploidy and Agrobacterium-mediated gene transformation to manipulate medicinal plant genomes, producing pharmaceutical secondary metabolites. The introduction of the third-generation clustered regularly interspaced short repeats (CRISPR)-Cas9 gene editing system has enabled the correction of defects seen in the first- and second-generation gene editing technologies, which relied on synthetic endonucleases like zinc finger endonuclease (ZFN) and transcription activator-like receptor nuclease (TALEN). These gene editing methods facilitate the manipulation of secondary metabolite pathways in medicinal plants. Virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) based on short interfering RNA-mediated RNA silencing provides a rapid alternative for knocking out gene expression in medicinal and aromatic plant species that may not easily undergo stable genetic transformation. This article offers an overview of global trends, advancements, and prospects in conserving and breeding of medicinal aromatic plants, and helping as a valuable reference for sustainable resource utilization.

About 43,000 plant species are said to exist in India of which 7,500 plant species are referred to in Indian folklore. The recent era has witnessed revitalisation in traditional health care system, and more people have started depending upon traditional herbal health care systems for various ailments. Majority of these medicinal plants are collected from the wild. Authentic identification/recognition of medicinal and aromatic plant species is a major challenge since there are a large number of vernacular names for the same species as well as different botanical species have the same common name. Hence, a knowledge-based system namely digital herbarium of medicinal and aromatic plants in India (DHMAPI) has been developed to help farmers and extension workers to identify medicinal and aromatic plants. The system is supported by a database containing information of about 350 medicinal and aromatic plant species and their colour images. High-resolution colour images of medicinal and aromatic plants were captured from different parts of India and integrated with technical information of respective species. Based on these herbaria information, a web-based system was developed and launched (http://www.dmapr.org.in:8080/dhmap/Home.jsp). The system, called DHMAPI, is a knowledge system that helps users to compare their unknown species with the existing dataset to identify their species.

The Mambilla Plateau, located in Taraba State, Nigeria, is renowned for its rich biodiversity, including a vast array of medicinal and aromatic plants that are crucial for both the local ecosystem and the indigenous communities' healthcare practices. Medicinal and Aromatic plants on Mambilla Plateau provide many ecosystem services including provisional, supporting and regulation service as well as maintaining ecosystem properties. On Mambilla Plateau some plants serve both medicinal and aromatic including Clausena anisata and Zanthoxylum leprieurii. This study aims to compile a comprehensive checklist of medicinal and aromatic plant species on the Mambilla Plateau, emphasizing their botanical names, families, and traditional uses. Seventeen medicinal and aromatic plants belonging twelve families were recorded. nine families are represented by one species from each family while two families are represented by two species from each family and one family was represented by fourspecies. Notably family Lamiaceae contains medicinal and aromatic species. By documenting these species, this paper seeks to contribute to the conservation efforts, sustainable development goals, sustainable use of medicinal and aromatic plants resources and other ecosystem services of medicinal and aromatic plants in the region.

The cultivation of of medicinal and aromatique plants in Romania

The research carried out had as its objective the introduction of some valuable medicinal and aromatic plant species into cultivation on sandy soils and aimed at enriching the collection of medicinal and aromatic plants existing at the Research Development Station Plant Culture Sands Dăbuleni .The behavior of the Cassia angustifolia Vahl. (senna) species on sandy soils was monitored in 2024 within the framework of Project 1.2.2,, Diversification of the assortment of medicinal, aromatic and Jerusalem artichoke plant species cultivated on sandy soils,, funded by Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development.Under irrigation conditions, at Research Development Station Plant Culture Sands Dăbuleni, the senna crop recorded an average production of green herb of 12640 kg/ha and of dry herb of 2429 kg/ha.

As it well known the decrease of biodiversity is a large problem all over the world. In case of medicinal plants, where the huge majority of drugs are collected from natural ecosystems, the sustainable, utilization of the populations and reservation of their gene-pools has an increased interest.
 In Hungary, the major background of 'in situ' reservation of medicinal plant species, their natural plant associations and ecosystems is the official protection by law. Successful examples are known for the controlled utilization of medicinal and aromatic plant species grown in protected areas. Assuring the naturally occuring high degree of biological and chemical diversity of species is a special task in this field: only maintenance of valuable intraspecific races can form the real genetic basis of natural biologically active compounds.
 Maintenance of chemotaxonomical gardens and gene bank collections (seed banks, tissue banks) as 'ex situ' methods of reservation is carried out on an extended range in Hungary. As the required information on storage and maintenance of many medicinal and aromatic plant species is yet missing, exhaustive research is carried out at both genebanks in Hungary, which are specialized for medicinal plant reservation (RIMAP- Budakalász, SZIU- Budapest).
 Beside the static conservation methods, 'quasi-production systems' are intended to assure an up-to-date and economically possible way of dynamic reservation with sustainable utilization.

Background : This work aims to the valorization of resources in the provinces of Rabat-Sale-Kenitra region, particularly aromatic and medicinal plants, and to the collection and documentation of the new ethno-medico-botanical information concerning the traditional use of these medicinal plants against chronic disease. Methods : An ethnobotanical survey was conducted in Rabat-Sale-Kenitra region with traditional herbalists, on one hand, and with subjects suffering from chronic diseases on the other hand, during 5 months from February to June 2019. Data were collected thanks to 581 questionnaire cards based on semi-structured interviews. Relative Citation Frequency (RFC), Family Importance Value (FIV), Plant Part Value (PPV), Fidelity Level (FL), and Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) were used in ethnobotanical data analysis. Results : A total of 79 medicinal and aromatic plant species were identified, belonging to 74 genera and 39 botanical families, of which Lamiaceae (FIV=0.038) and Asteraceae (FIV=0.015) were the most frequently represented. The most cited plant species were Nigella sativa (RFC=0.12), and Origanum compactum (RFC= 0.091). Leaves represent the most used plants part with PPV=0.246 and decoction was the major preparation model of remedies (37.7%). Concerning treated diseases, chronic kidney disease has the highest ICF (0.93). Furthermore, 18 cases of side effects related to the use of medicinal species such as Aristolochia longa and Peganum harmala were recorded. Conclusion : In light of this work, the population recognizes the effectiveness of medicinal plants in the treatment of chronic diseases, but their use will have to go through extensive phytochemical, pharmacological and toxicological research in order to clarify their effectiveness and innocuousness. Keywords : Medicinal and aromatic plants, Ethnobotanical surveys, Chronic diseases, Rabat-Sale-Kenitra region.

From the old times the phytotherapy help in ameliorating and treating of some ailments, this had highlith some medicinal and aromatic plants species to beeing cultivated to more areas. In Romania, more than 300 medicinal and aromatic plant species are known, the purpose of research from the RDSPCS Dabuleni being to the promotion of some medicinal and aromatic plants species on sandy soils. So, the folllowin medicinal and aromatic species with therapeutic value was studied: Salvia officinalis, Lavandula angustifolia, Calendula officinalis, Hyssopus officinalis. Salvia officinalis due to its rich vitamin content, is considered a miraculous plant with healing properties. Lavandula angustifolia is used in natural medicine for various teas, oils and tinctures, but also in the cosmetic industry for perfumes, soaps and body lotions. Calendula officinalis is cultivated for its flowers due to its antiinflammatory, antiseptic, antimicrobial action. Hyssopus officinalis is a very precious plant for health due to the volatile oils and flavonoids in its composition. These species are studied to profitably capitalize on the ecopedological conditions specific to sandy soils in terms of production capacities and the active principles they contain compared to the forms existing in other areas of the country. Thus, during the study period, Salvia officinalis has registerred the highest yield of 14052 kg/ha fresh herb compared to the other studied species, with a dry yield of 4:1.

Coisolation of genomic and organelle DNAs from 15 genera and 31 species of plants

The relationship between in situ and ex situ conservation of species has implications for local communities, public and private land owners, entire industries and, of course, wild species. Identifying the conservation benefits and costs of the different production systems for medicinal and aromatic plants (MAP) should help guide policies as to whether species conservation should take place in nature or the nursery, or both. In all countries, the trend is towards a greater demand for cultivated material. Standardized quality and quantity of production is the main rationale for bringing a species into cultivation. However, high input costs are a substantial limitation of cultivation as long as sufficient volumes of material can still be obtained at a lower price from wild harvest. For economic reasons, the majority of MAP species will therefore continue to be harvested wild. For them, the priority conservation option is sustainable harvest from wild populations. There are important social, economic, and ecological benefits from wild harvest. Wild harvesting of medicinal plants is a chance for the poorest members of society, particularly those who do not have access to farmland, to make at least some cash income. If collectors and collecting communities can be involved in the development of propagation and management methods, the likelihood of their having an interest in protecting the wild populations from over-exploitation will be greater. Small-scale cultivation with low economic inputs can be a response to declining local stocks, generating income and supplying regional markets. Besides poverty and the break-down of traditional controls, the major challenges for sustainable wild-collection include: lack of knowledge about sustainable harvest rates and practices, undefined land use rights and lack of legislative and policy guidance. Sustainable harvesting needs to be recognized as the most important conservation strategy for most wild-harvested species and their habitats, given their current and potential contributions to local economies and their greater value to harvesters over the long term. The basic idea is that non-destructive harvests and local benefits will maintain population, species and ecosystem diversity. INTRODUCTION Since time immemorial, people have gathered plant and animal resources for their needs. Among these uses, medicinal plants play a central role, not only as traditional Proc. WOCMAP III, Vol 2: Conservation Cultivation & Sustainable Use of MAPs Eds.: A. Jatisatienr, T. Paratasilpin, S. Elliott, V. Anusarnsunthorn, D. Wedge, L.E. Craker and Z.E. Gardner Acta Hort. 676, ISHS 2005 32 medicines used in many cultures, but also as trade commodities, which meet the demand of often distant markets. For the purpose of this paper the term “medicinal and aromatic plant” (MAP) is defined as “plants used not only medicinally sensu strictu but also in the often overlapping fields of condiments, food and cosmetics”. Demand for a wide variety of wild species is increasing with growth in human needs, numbers and commercial trade. With the increased realization that some wild species are being over-exploited, a number of agencies are recommending that wild species be brought into cultivation systems (Bundesverband der Arzneimittel-Hersteller, 2002; Lambert et al., 1997; WHO, IUCN and WWF, 1993). Cultivation can also have conservation impacts, however, and these need to be better understood. The relationship between in situ and ex situ conservation of species is an interesting topic with implications for local communities, public and private land owners and managers, entire industries and, of course, wild species. Identifying the conservation benefits and costs of the different production systems for MAP should help guide policies as to whether species conservation should take place in nature or the nursery, or both (Bodeker et al., 1997). How Many MAP Are Used World-wide? The number of plant species which have at one time or another been used in some culture for medicinal purposes can only be estimated. An enumeration by the WHO from the late 1970s listed 21,000 medicinal species (Penso, 1980). However, in China alone 4,941 of 26,092 native species are used as drugs in Chinese traditional medicine (Duke and Ayensu, 1985), an astonishing 18.9 percent. If this proportion is calculated for other well-known medicinal floras and then applied to the global total of 422,000 flowering plant species (Bramwell, 2002; Govaert, 2001), it may be extrapolated that the number of plant species used for medicinal purposes is more than 52,000. How Many MAP Species Are Traded? It is difficult to assess how many MAP are commercially traded, either on a national or even an international level. The bulk of the plant material is exported from developing countries, while major markets are in the developed countries. An analysis of UNCTAD trade figures for 1981-1998 reflects this almost universal feature of MAP trade (Table 1). Adding the volumes for the five European countries in this list (94,300 tonnes) marks the dominance of Europe as an import region. Germany ranks fourth and third as importer and exporter, respectively, indicating the country’s major role as a transit hub for medicinal plant raw materials world-wide. Iqbal (1993) estimates that about “4,000 to 6,000 botanicals [= medicinal plants species] are of commercial importance”; another source refers to 5-6,000 “botanicals entering the world market” (Secretariat Convention Biological Diversity, 2001). A thorough investigation of the German medicinal plant trade identified a total of 1,543 MAP being traded or offered on the German market (Lange and Schippmann, 1997). An extension of this survey to Europe as a whole arrived at 2,000 species in trade for medicinal purposes (Lange, 1998). Recognizing the role of Europe as a sink for MAP traded from all regions of the world, it is a qualified guess that the total number of MAP in international trade will be around 2,500 species world-wide. How Many MAP Are Threatened World-wide? In many cases, the impact through direct off-take is negatively reinforced by decline owing to changes in land use. Species favoured by extensive agricultural management like Arnica montana in central Europe go into decline, with changes in farming practices towards higher nutrient input on the meadows. This requires habitat management as the key factor in managing species populations (Ellenberger, 1999). One of the goals of the IUCN Medicinal Plant Specialist Group is to identify the species that have become threatened by non-sustainable harvesting and other factors. The enormity of this task is illustrated by the following estimate. According to Walter and

Ülkemiz biyolojik çeşitlilik açısından zengin ülkeler arasındadır.Tıbbi ve aromatik bitkiler söz konusu biyolojik çeşitliliğinin bitkiçeşitliliği kısmında oldukça önemli bir paya sahiptir. Dünya pazarında tıbbi vearomatik bitkilere olan talebin geçen gün arttığı açıkça bilinmektedir. Ülkemizfarklı ekolojik ve iklim koşulları ile farklı yeryüzü şekillerine sahip olmasınedeniyle zengin bitki tür çeşitliliğini içermektedir. Bu tür çeşitliliğiiçerisinde tıbbi ve aromatik bitkiler büyük bir ekonomik potansiyele sahiptir.Bu çalışma bitki çeşitliliği bakımından oldukça zengin bir yöre olanIsparta-Yenişarbademli ilçesi ormanlık alanlarında gerçekleştirilmiştir.Çalışma alanında 70 örnek alanda tıbbi ve aromatik öneme sahip 10 bitki türütespit edilmiştir. Çalışmanın amacı tespitedilen tıbbi ve aromatik bitkilerin yayılış alanlarında bulunan diğer bitkitürlerinin zenginliğini ortaya koyabilmektir. Böylece tespit edilen her tıbbive aromatik bitkinin yaşam alanını paylaştığı türlerle ilişkisinin belirlenmesihedeflenmiştir. Bu doğrultuda yapılan çalışmalarda ilk olarak tür zenginliğinibelirlemek amacıyla biyolojik çeşitlilik bileşenlerinden gama çeşitliliğihesaplanmıştır. Ayrıca örnek alanlarda tespit edilen tıbbi ve aromatik özelliğesahip bitki türlerinin yetişme ortamı özelliklerine göre yayılış alanları ileilgili bilgiler irdelenmiştir. Çalışmanın sonucunda ise en yüksek türzenginliğine sahip tıbbi ve aromatik bitki türünün Rosa canina’nın dağılımgösterdiği yetişme ortamlarında olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır.

The increased demand for natural products from wild aromatic and medicinal plants has stimulated several research projects focusing on phytochemistry, ethnobotany, pharmacognosy and many other sub-disciplines related to medicine and pharmacy or cosmetology and chemical industry in general. Morocco is one of the richest Mediterranean countries whose flora is well known and many of its plant resources and products very demanded by consumers and manufacturers but there is an urgent need to deal with wild medicinal and aromatic plants namely found on public lands. In this study, we attempt to identify and assess the wild species to overharvesting especially those in forest lands and then identify priority ones. A rapid vulnerability assessment approach was applied to 182 species inventoried referring to its biological, ecological and chorological criteria then combined to trade data. We obtained three groups of MAP species depending on its vulnerability ranked from high to very low vulnerability and their availability at national level. A list of 25 priority species was sorted on its economic value for export and then only the most representative ones within each region was identified to analyze its corresponding actions. These insights could be applied to improve the conservation policies and guide the sustainable management and economic valuation plans to implement the Moroccan Medicinal and aromatic plants strategy.

A large portion of India's biodiversity comes from the western states, particularly Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Rajasthan. Despite the states' unfavorable geoclimate, they are home to an abundance of aromatic and medicinal plant species. The western part of India experiences a varied climate, ranging from tropical humid on the coast to semi-arid and dry inland, with hot summers and mild winters, primarily characterized by the heavy monsoon rains brought by the southwest monsoon winds during the rainy season. The plants having high constituents value of their active phytochemicals to impact the desired results. The studies shows that the wild raw materials supply is dominant to supply of herbal raw material than the cultivated sources. During the compilation of literature total 48 plants species have found to be the endemic and reported by various workers in the western region (Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Gujrat) of India. In the western part of India, there are 22 protected areas that have their own unique flora, including a variety of medicinal plants. These areas include national parks, sanctuaries, and reserve forests. In order to address the demand and supply gap in the medicinal plant industry, it would be beneficial to encourage the cultivation of medicinal plants native to the western area of India. In order for medicinal plants to be viable, the supply network for them needs to be strengthened.