Robust expansion planning of a distribution system with electric vehicles, storage and renewable units

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">In recent years, global warming, depletion of fossil fuels, and reducing pollution have become increasingly prominent issues, resulting in demand for environmentally-friendly two-wheeled vehicles capable of reducing CO2 emissions. However, it remains necessary to meet customers’ expectations by providing smaller drivetrains, lighter vehicles, and support for long-distance riding, among other characteristics. In the face of this situation, hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) systems are considered to be the most realistic method for creating environmentally-friendly powertrains and are widely used.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">This research introduces a hybrid electric two-wheeled vehicle fitted with an electrical variable transmission (EVT) system, a completely new type of electrical transmission that meets the aforementioned needs, achieving enhanced fuel efficiency with a compact drivetrain. The EVT system comprises double rotors installed inside the stator. The hybrid electric two-wheeled vehicle equipped with the EVT system has the electric drive and regenerative braking functions of a fully electric vehicle, internal combustion start and power generation functions as an engine generator, and hybrid power generation functions, including combined power generation and drive through integrated control. The EVT system also provides boost acceleration functions and direct double rotor connection functions, offering wide-ranging advantages compared to conventional motorcycles and enabling the provision of new types of distinctive value.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The authors developed a prototype hybrid electric two-wheeled vehicle fitted with this unique EVT electrical transmission.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">This article considers its qualities compared to other two-wheeled vehicles and describes the hybrid topology, the various functions of the EVT, the working principle of the EVT, the EVT configuration and the two-wheeled vehicle configuration, the prototype EVT machine, the EVT powertrain hybrid control strategy, the hybrid powertrain development environment, the results of hybrid electric two-wheeled vehicle performance measurements and the possibilities presented by hybrid electric two-wheeled vehicles.</div></div>

This paper is concerned with the generation and transmission expansion planning of large-scale energy systems with high penetration of renewable energy sources. Since expansion plans are usually provided for a long-term planning horizon, the system conditions are generally uncertain at the time the expansion plans are decided. In this work, we focus on the uncertainty of thermal power plants production costs, because of the important role they play in the generation and transmission expansion planning by affecting the merit order of thermal plants and the economic viability of renewable generation. To deal with this long-term uncertainty, we consider different scenarios and we define capacity expansion decisions using a two-stage stochastic programming model that aims at minimizing the sum of investment, decommissioning and fixed costs and the expected value of operational costs. To be computationally tractable most of the existing expansion planning models employ a low level of temporal and technical detail. However, this approach is no more an appropriate approximation for power systems analysis, since it does not allow to accurately study all the challenges related to integrating high shares of intermittent energy sources, underestimating the need for flexible resources and the expected costs. To provide more accurate expansion plans for power systems with large penetration of renewables, in our analysis, we consider a high level of temporal detail and we include unit commitment constraints on a plant-by-plant level into the expansion planning framework. To maintain the problem computationally tractable, we use representative days and we implement a multi-cut Benders decomposition algorithm, decomposing the original problem both by year and by scenario. Results obtained with our methodology in the Italian energy system under a 21-year planning horizon show how the proposed model can offer professional guidance and support in strategic decisions to the different actors involved in electricity transmission and generation.

With the deterioration of the environment and energy crisis is becoming more and more serious, the development of low carbon industry has risen to national strategies. In the energy utilization and environmental effect, electric vehicle to the fuel vehicle has the advantages of energy saving and emission reduction prominent; the whole life cycle analysis, the electric vehicle complete life cycle into electric energy transmission cycle and vehicle life cycle of two parts; electric vehicle power battery as storage unit, strengthen the relationship between electric vehicle, new energy and smart grid among the three, promotes the development and application of clean energy, speed up the construction of smart grid, realize the real energy-saving and emission-reduction.

The urgency of sustainable, energy-efficient transportation has become extremely important as the US 1 and Global 2 energy sectors review their 2035-2040 phase-out of fossil fuel use. Top Global vehicle manufacturers have released a timeline to limit production for diesel and petrol-based three vehicles as early as 2024 4. The 2022 United States fuel costs increase reignited consumer interest in electric and hybrid transportation 5. Still, consumers are met with a limited understanding of the environmental impact expected with the fuel transition to electric transportation changes. CURRENTLY, the US has 275 million registered gas vehicles; 1.5 million electric vehicles 6. This means nearly 300 million electric automobiles will soon be introduced into the US Energy infrastructure within the next decade. Currently, the EPA approves two charging systems for residential EV charging options 7, SAE Electric Vehicle Conductive Charge Coupler (SAE J1772) Level 1, charging up to 120VAC, and Level 2, charging up to 240VAC. Level 3 direct-current (DC) Fast Charging, primarily provided by commercial providers, requires 480VAC and is not recommended for residential use due to its high energy costs 8. EPA regions in the United States experience increased electrical grid disturbances such as climate emergencies, seasonal infrastructure grid spikes, and commercial usage. The inevitable increase in EV charging raises concerns about current US federal and state policies based on the specific environmental impact of each US EPA region to support the eGrid subregion 9 preparations for expanding energy needs of an increased electric vehicle supply. Introduction By 2030, the electric vehicle will become a part of our daily necessities and social needs. The implementation of EVs can introduce similar culture-shifting changes seen with the expanded smartphone use in the 2000s or create many concerns that arose with social media in the late 2010s. Should EVs dramatically affect transportation patterns, environmental impact, energy needs, and economic changes? Can society understand the responsibility for equipment that can have profound implications if not understood? While we can assume these changes can create a greener outlook for vehicle emissions until we see the effects of gas-to-electric transitions, EVs' actual impact on our social patterns can verge on speculation. This review identifies the manufacturing impact, maintenance, and charging needs; as the economic and social equity factors for those who may lack the resources to maintain an electric vehicle responsibly. Furthermore, lastly, does the expansion of EV innovation inspire other technological and social improvements for inventors? Will this lead to re-engineering other appliances and equipment with the potential of a greener result? With the implementation of EVs, regulation must consider all aspects of accessibility to review if it improves or hinders social improvement. The maintenance of these vehicles, the accessibility of charging, the environmental regulatory needs for manufacturing, and safety are all things every potential consumer has to consider. When the expiration of gas-powered vehicles begins in 2030, regulators need to be prepared to transition prior vehicle concerns with expanded EV usage more seriously to ensure consumer safety and understand what risks come with greener expectations. Methods Regulations for electric vehicle (EV) manufacturers vary by country and region but generally aim to promote EV adoption and reduce transportation's environmental impact. Current regulations are the following: Emission standards: Local State and Federal regulations are to determine emission standards for EVs based on NEPA <> to reduce air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions per US region. Zero-emission vehicle (ZEV) mandates: Some countries and states have ZEV mandates, which require a certain percentage of new vehicle sales to be zero-emission vehicles. Financial incentives: US Department of Energy tax credits or rebates <> encourage consumers to purchase EVs. Charging infrastructure: Governments may provide funding or require the installation of charging infrastructure to support the growth of the EV market. Battery recycling: Governments may set regulations for battery recycling to ensure the proper disposal of used batteries and reduce the environmental impact of battery production. In the European Union, the European Commission has set a target of at least 30 million EVs on the road by 2025 and 60-70% of new cars to be emissions-free by 2030. In the United States, the Biden Administration has announced plans to promote the deployment of 500,000 charging stations by 2030. In China, the government has set a target of 20% of new vehicle sales to be EVs by 2025. During 2021, approximately 60,000 public electric vehicle (EV) charging stations function within the United States. The number of charging stations has been proliferating in recent years due to increased demand for EVs and efforts by governments and private companies to build out charging infrastructure. The 2021-2024 United States Presidential Administration stated plans to provide consumer access to 500,000 charging stations by 2030 eventually. This is compared to 120,000 to 130,000 working gas stations within the United States<>. The maintenance requirements for an electric vehicle (EV) are typically different from those of a traditional internal combustion engine vehicle. As such, some specialized equipment may be needed to maintain an EV properly. Here are some examples of equipment that may be required for EV maintenance: High-Voltage Disconnect Tool: To safely disconnect the high-voltage battery in an EV, a unique tool is required to safely cut power to the battery while preventing any electrical arcing. Charging Equipment: Depending on the type of EV and charging system, specialized equipment may be needed to charge the battery, including charging cables, charging stations, and DC fast-charging equipment. Diagnostic Tools: To diagnose issues with the electrical and charging systems in an EV, specialized diagnostic tools are needed that can communicate with the vehicle's onboard computers. Brake System Tools: Electric vehicles typically use regenerative braking, which can wear the brake system more than traditional internal combustion engine vehicles. As such, specialized tools may be needed to service the brake system on an EV. Tire Changing Equipment: Electric vehicles can be heavy due to the battery's weight; specialized tire changing equipment may be needed to properly adjust the tires on an EV. Discussion The average cost of an electric vehicle (EV) can vary widely depending on the model and its features. In 2021, the average price of a new EV in the United States was around $55,000. Not including EV operating costs, costs for hybrid-fuel considerations, diagnostics, and general maintenance can offset the higher upfront cost compared to internal combustion engine vehicles over time. The Department of Energy has provided financial incentives, such as tax credits or rebates, to encourage EV purchases. The cost of recharging an electric vehicle (EV) can vary widely depending on several factors, including the local cost of electricity, the size of the battery, and the charging rate. As a rough estimate, it can cost anywhere from $5 to $15 to charge an EV, depending on the specific circumstances. This can range from $5 to $8 for a small, hatchback-style EV with a 30 kWh battery to $15 or more for a large SUV with a 100 kWh battery. It is important to note that the cost of charging an EV is still typically lower than the cost of fueling an internal combustion engine vehicle with gasoline. Additionally, many electric utilities offer time-of-use rates that allow EV owners to charge their cars during off-peak hours when electricity is less expensive. This helps minimize the cost of recharging an EV. The impact of electric vehicles (EVs) on electric bills will depend on several factors, including the electric utility's rate structure, the EV owner's driving habits, and the source of the electricity used for charging. The additional costs of an EV will increase a household's electric consumption and, therefore, its electric bill. However, the impact on the electric bill will be influenced by the cost of electricity in the local area, the size of the EV battery, and how often the EV is charged. It is estimated that charging an EV can add $30 to $50 per month to a household's electric bill. However, the actual cost can be higher or lower depending on the specific circumstances.

Developing cars is a major factor that has determined the increasing of the civilization degree and the continuous stimulation of the society progress. Currently, in Europe, one in five active people and in the US, one in four, directly work in the automotive industry (research, design, manufacture, maintenance) or in related domains (fuel, trade, traffic safety, roads, environmental protection). On our planet the number of the cars increases continuously and he nearly doubled in the last 10 years. With increasing number of cars entered in circulation every year, is held and increasing fuel consumption, increased environmental pollution due to emissions from internal combustion engines (ICE), used to their propulsion. Reducing oil consumption takes into account the limited availability of petroleum reserves and reducing emissions that affect the health of population in large urban agglomerations. The car needs a propulsion source to develop a maximum torque at zero speed. This can not be achieved with the classic ICE. For ICE power conversion efficiency is weak at low speeds and it has the highest values close to the rated speed. Pollution reduction can be achieved by using electric vehicles (EV), whose number is still significant. The idea of an electrical powered vehicle (EV) has been around for almost 200 years. The first electric vehicle was built by Thomas Davenport in 1834 [Westbrook, 2005]] But over time, the batteries used for energy storage could provide the amount of electricity needed to fully electric propulsion vehicles. Electric vehicles are powered by electric batteries which are charged at stations from sources supplied by electrical network with electricity produced in power plants. Currently, a lot of researches are focused on the possibility of using fuel cells for producing energy from hydrogen. EV with fuel cell can be a competitive alternative to the standard ICE that is used in today’s cars. If performance is assessed overall thrust of the effort wheel and crude oil consumed for the two solutions: classic car with ICE and car with electric motor powered by electric batteries, the difference between their yields is not spectacular. In terms of exhaust emissions is the net advantage for electric vehicles. Pollutant emissions due to energy that is produced in power plants (plant property, located) are much easier to control than those produced by internal combustion engines of vehicles that are individual and scattered. Power plants are usually located outside urban areas, their emissions affects fewer people living in these cities. By using electric motors and controllers efficient, electric vehicles provide the means to achieve a clean and efficient urban transport system and a friendly environment. Electric vehicles are zero emission vehicles, called ZEV type vehicles (Zero-Emissions Vehicles).

Overall, the electric vehicle transmission system shows an underdamped characteristic. Under changeable road conditions and high-frequency response for the motor, the resulting dynamic load environment may cause multiple failure modes, such as contact fatigue failure and bending fatigue fracture, for the transmission component, which limits the electric vehicle transmission component lifespan and system reliability. To reflect the dynamic load characteristics of the electric vehicle transmission system using a permanent magnet synchronous motor as a power source and accurately calculate the dynamic load of the transmission system, a high-speed helical gear-rotor-bearing coupling mechanical model for the electric vehicle transmission system was built based on simulating actual operation working conditions of the electric vehicle and considering the external load excitation caused by the Electromagnetic torque of the permanent magnet synchronous motor and vehicle driving resistant change as well as internal excitation caused by gear time-varying meshing rigidness and meshing error. Through simulation calculation of the mechanical model, the dynamic meshing force of the gear pair and dynamic contact force of the support bearing was obtained. Based on the Hertz contact theory, the stress-time history was obtained for the key parts, the rain flow counting method was adopted for the statistics collection and analysis of the stress-time history, and the fatigue load spectrum for various key parts of the transmission system was obtained. The result lays a foundation for the fatigue life prediction and reliability analysis for the pure electric vehicle transmission system.

The environmental benefits of zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs) are affected by both consumer adoption and usage patterns. While numerous studies examine consumers’ stated or revealed preferences for ZEV adoption, ZEV usage patterns have received less attention. Based on the 2019 California vehicle survey data, this paper analyzes the annual mileage of three ZEV types: battery electric vehicle (BEV), plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), and fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV). Results show that ZEVs are driven as much as or more than internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). Furthermore, focusing on households with one ZEV and one or more ICEVs, factors that influence household electric vehicle miles traveled (eVMT) are explored using multiple linear regression models. Greater battery range, home charging capability (regardless of charger type), and provision of special electricity rates for home charging are found to be positively correlated with the eVMT of PHEV households. The eVMT of BEV households is positively associated with Level 2 home charging capability, solar panel installation, access to workplace DC fast charging, and access to public Level 2 and DC fast charging stations. The number of routinely-used public hydrogen refueling stations is associated with higher FCEV household eVMT. Lastly, when high-occupancy vehicle lane access is rated as extremely important in the ZEV purchase decision, greater eVMT is found for both BEV and FCEV households, but not for PHEV households. Results of this study inform policies to encourage eVMT over vehicle miles traveled by ICEV in a household, achieving greater environmental benefits from ZEVs.

A study has been made of energy storage unit requirements for hybrid-electric vehicles. The drivelines for these vehicles included both primary energy storage units and/or pulse power units. The primary energy storage units were sized to provide ``primary energy`` ranges up to 60 km. The total power capability of the drivelines were such that the vehicles had 0 to 100 km/h acceleration times of 10 to 12 s. The power density requirements for primary energy storage devices to be used in hybrid vehicles are much higher than that for devices to be used in electric vehicles. The energy density and power density requirements for pulse-power devices for hybrid vehicles, are not much different than those in an electric vehicle. The cycle life requirements for primary energy-storage units for hybrid vehicles are about double that for electric vehicles, because of the reduced size of the storage units in the hybrid vehicles. The cycle life for pulse-power devices for hybrid vehicles is about the same as for electric vehicles having battery load leveling. Because of the need for additional components in the hybrid driveline, the cost of the energy storage units in hybrid vehicles should be much less (at least a factor of two) than those in electric vehicles. There are no presently available energy storage units that meet all the specifications for hybrid vehicle applications, but ultracapacitors and bipolar lead-acid batteries are under development that have the potential for meeting them. If flywheel systems having a mechanical system energy density of 40 to 50 W{center_dot}h/kg and an electrical system power density of 2 to 3 kw/kg can be developed, they would have the potential of meeting specifications for primary storage and pulse power units.

Zero-emission vehicle exposure within U.S. carsharing fleets and impacts on sentiment toward electric-drive vehicles

Performance evaluation and improvement for ZEV credit regulation in a competitive environment

Identification of relevant routes for static expansion planning of electric power transmission systems

Index

Nowadays, electric vehicles (EVs) are of great interest over the world. In the past, the diffusion of EVs was impeded because of the limits of energy storage units, which reflect in vehicle range limited extension. In recent years, a significant progress was made in terms of power and energy density thanks to the lithium based batteries that can guarantee vehicle ranges higher than 100 km. Another further step can be done by coupling more than one storage technology and leading to an increased efficiency and extension of the vehicle range. In this paper, the effectiveness of adding another storage unit to a lithium ion battery is investigated for different EVs and driving cycles. Furthermore, a methodology procedure, based on the knowledge of the test driving cycle, and parameters of the EV, is proposed to find the optimal size of the auxiliary storage, that maximizes the EV range.

POLICY BRIEF INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION STUDIES A California Feebate Program can Support Transition to Zero Emission Vehicles at No Cost to Taxpayers Alan Jenn and Dan Sperling, Institute of Transportation Studies, UC Davis Issue The State of California has developed a range of programs to accelerate the adoption of zero-emission vehicles (ZEV). California’s ZEV mandate will require 15% of vehicles sold in the state to be ZEV or transitional ZEV (TZEV) by 2025 i . To encourage purchases of these vehicles, California established the Clean Vehicle Rebate Project (CVRP), which provides consumer rebates of $5,000 for fuel cell vehicles, $2,500 for battery electric vehicles, and $1,500 for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles ii . The federal government also provides a $7,500 tax credit to purchasers of qualifying electric vehicles. As ZEV sales increase, the amount of funding needed to provide rebates would need to increase as well at a cost to taxpayers under the current incentive structure. For example, selling one million battery electric vehicles in California will result in a cost of $10 billion to taxpayers (i.e., $10,000 in combined federal and state incentives multiplied by one million). Markets and regulations are also getting out of alignment. Vehicle fuel economy and greenhouse gases (GHG) standards are becoming more stringent as oil prices are staying low. If gasoline prices stay low, as seems likely (thanks in part to tightening vehicle standards in US, Europe, and elsewhere), then consumers will have little incentive to buy a more expensive, fuel-efficient car. As vehicle fuel and GHG standards get become even more stringent, the misalignment will worsen. KEY TAKEAWAY A feebate policy charges a fee to buyers of “gas guzzlers” and provides rebates to buyers of fuel efficient and electric vehicles. Feebates are a policy mechanism that can increase electric vehicles sales while still reamining to: (1) reduce taxpayer burden, (2) preserve the integrity of federal fuel efficiency standards (by aligning market price signals);and (3) improving social equity by reducing the cost of vehicles for low income buyers. Research Findings Amount Cutoff $2,500 Cars: 85th Percentile) Cars: 47-71 mpg Trucks: 34-36.5 mpg (90th Percentile) Cars: > 71 mpg Trucks: > 36.5 mpg 95th Percentile Table 1. Sample Feebate Structure

To predict the market dynamics of various zero-emission vehicle (ZEV) technologies, this study introduces a dynamic discrete vehicle choice model (VCM) that investigates the probabilities associated with 14 decision factors, applying these to the purchase of ZEVs from 2020 to 2040. Market share and penetration results are presented under eight scenarios, that vary by vehicle costs infrastructure development and incentive strategies. The findings suggest that in the early years, incentives alone may not generate significant market penetration of ZEVs before the infrastructure meets the basic convenience for daily use, especially for fuel cell vehicles (FCVs). However, in later years, incentives play a more important role in the market penetration of ZEVs under well-defined infrastructure networks. By 2040, battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are projected to dominate the market in California. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and FCVs may experience a decline in market share due to improved charging convenience, which benefits the market penetration of BEVs. However, fuel cell plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (FC-PHEVs) could still be beneficial if accessible models are available, considering the limited availability of hydrogen refueling stations. The goal set by the California Air Resources Board (CARB) is achievable, but it requires a sustained combination of measures; no single effort can achieve it. These measures include technological improvements to reduce the cost of ZEVs, a wider range of models available for consumers to choose from based on their desired performance, the establishment of infrastructure (battery chargers and hydrogen dispensers), and attractive incentives aimed at promoting ZEV adoption. The proposed methodology can be adapted for other regions in the United States and globally by carefully examining the inputs for each decision factor at the desired scale.