Abstract
Fusarium circinatum (Nirenberg and O’ Donnell) is the causal agent of pine pitch canker (PPC) disease, one of the most devastating forest diseases worldwide. Long-distance spread occurs mainly through the movement of infected seeds whereas at regional level, the movement of seedlings, substrates, or containers may play an important role in fungal dispersal. Invasion of nurseries takes place via infected seeds and further spread can occur by planting contaminated seedlings, especially due to the possibility of infected plants remaining symptomless. Once established, F. circinatum spreads by rain, wind, and insects. The natural spread of the pathogen is limited due to the short dispersal distances of the spores and the fairly short flight distances of disseminating insects. In this review, we summarize the currently known dispersal pathways of the pathogen, discussing both natural and human-assisted processes. With the purpose of understanding how to best intervene in the disease’s development in nurseries and forests, we outline the epidemiology of the pathogen describing the key factors influencing its spread. Preventive measures to control the spread of F. circinatum locally and globally are described with special emphasis on the challenges in implementing them.
Highlights
The geographic barriers that have stabilized the distribution of the world’s biota for millions of years have been eroded by human activity in recent centuries, and many plant and pathogen species have moved beyond their native range [1,2]
Population differentiation analysis performed by Berbegal et al [46] revealed similarities among F. circinatum populations from Spain, France, Portugal, Uruguay, and the USA and clearly separated Spanish and Portuguese populations from those identified in South Africa, Mexico, and Chile
This review provides a comprehensive description of the pathways of F. circinatum spread and clarifies its epidemiology by outlining the process of infection and describing environmental factors influencing disease development
Summary
The geographic barriers that have stabilized the distribution of the world’s biota for millions of years have been eroded by human activity in recent centuries, and many plant and pathogen species have moved beyond their native range [1,2]. The pine pathogen Fusarium circinatum (Nirenberg and O’ Donnell) causing pine pitch canker (PPC) disease was introduced from its native region in Mexico [7] to different continents probably by contaminated seeds, and is currently present throughout Southern USA, Africa, Asia, and Europe [8]. Population differentiation analysis performed by Berbegal et al [46] revealed similarities among F. circinatum populations from Spain, France, Portugal, Uruguay, and the USA and clearly separated Spanish and Portuguese populations from those identified in South Africa, Mexico, and Chile This suggests that the USA would have been the source of the F. circinatum introduction to Spain, which in turn is the probable source of Portuguese and French populations. The review identifies weak points in current regulations and provides suggestions for implementation
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