Paper-based and digital reading in 14 countries: exploring cross-country variation in mode effects

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ABSTRACT Paper-based and digital reading has garnered significant attention in recent past. This study investigates the reading achievement of 10-year-old students in two standardised reading tests, differing only in modality. Our primary aim was to examine the extent to which the different tests measured the same reading abilities and whether student background or digital activities introduced any bias, such as boys performing relatively better in digital reading. Utilising PIRLS data from 14 countries, we investigated associations both at individual and school level. Although initial results suggested the possibility of mode effects – since correlations across modes were around 0.7 in many countries – our regression analyses indicated only small “mode bias" for our covariates when controlling for paper-based reading skills, suggesting that there is no substantial mode effect. However, socioeconomic status (SES), as measured by the number of books at home, remained a significant predictor of digital reading performance in all countries, even after controlling for paper-based reading skills. Additionally, the use of digital devices during leisure time was linked to lower performance in both paper-based and digital reading in most countries, while using technology for schoolwork – such as preparing reports and presentations – was associated with better performance across both modalities. The results provide some support for the movement towards digital testing in reading, as the association between the two modes is strong and mode bias tends to be minimal. Future research is needed to examine how the different testing modes operate in other subject domains.