Abstract
Eastern (Tsuga canadensis) and Carolina hemlocks (T. caroliniana) of eastern North America have been attacked by the non-native hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae Annand) (HWA) since the first half of the 20th century. Unlike most insects, HWA develops through one generation from fall to late winter, exposing this insect to the lethal effects of winter temperatures. The mortality inflicted by winter temperatures on HWA determines the surviving population density as well as its ability to spread to uninfested areas. With the ongoing changes in climate, knowledge of this species’ ability to survive and spread in the future can help land managers prepare for its management. This study began during the winter of 2014 and ended in the spring of 2017. During this period, winter mortality of HWA was recorded at 100 sites from Maine to Georgia (n = 209). Changes in population density from the sistens to the succeeding progrediens generation were recorded at 24 sites (n = 35). Models were developed to predict HWA mortality using the lowest minimum temperature prior to the mortality assessment date, the number of days with mean temperature <−1 °C, and the mean daily temperature of the three days preceding that minimum. Models were also developed to predict population density changes from the overwintering sistens generation to the following progrediens generation. Future projections under climate change showed increases in winter survival and population growth rates over time. Especially towards the northeastern edge of T. canadensis’ distribution as minimum temperatures are predicted to increase at a greater rate. This will result in an increase in density throughout its current distribution and expansion northward causing an increase in its impact on eastern Tsuga spp.
Highlights
Eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carrière) is distributed from the southeastern coastal areas of Canada, south through the Appalachian mountains to north Georgia, and west to easternOhio, Michigan, and Minnesota [1]
This study incorporates the effect of winter cold mortality over a four-year period and a very broad geographic region, plus the resulting change in the sistens to progrediens population ratio to develop geographic region, plus the resulting change in the sistens to progrediens population ratio to develop a model of winter survival and population growth
Three indices were found to be useful in predicting future winter mortality: the extreme minimum temperature (Tmin ); the cumulative effect of cold, expressed as the number of days with a mean temperature
Summary
Eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carrière) is distributed from the southeastern coastal areas of Canada, south through the Appalachian mountains to north Georgia, and west to eastern. Michigan, and Minnesota [1]. Throughout the Lake States, New England, and eastern Canada, this species is found at elevations up to 730 m. In the Mid-Atlantic States, it is found from 300 to. 900 m, and in the southern Appalachians from 600 to 1525 m [2]. Engelm.) are found from south of the James River in Virginia to northern Georgia [3]. Eastern hemlocks prefer moist to very moist soils but can tolerate drier soils and ridgetops [4].
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