Medicinal and Aromatic plants: “Natural bio-chemicals and medicine factories”

Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) have become a part of traditional system of medicines and have gained importance, more so in today’s world. According to the estimate of World Health Organization (WHO), about 80% of the population of developing world are making use of traditional medicines. The medicinal plants have been used for widespread purposes since ancient times in countries particularly India, China, Greece, Persia etc. In India, according to a report of AICEP, Anthropological Survey of India, 1994, it is estimated that over 7,500 species of medicinal plants are used for therapeutic uses. The major floral species which are widely used as medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) include Ephedra gerardiana Wall., Rauvolfia serpentina, Swertia chirata, Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle, Rhododendron anthopogon D. Dun., Peganum harmala L. etc. The widespread use of these medicinal plants for both internal consumption and export purposes have led to their large-scale exploitation, resulting in loss of biological diversity (both at genetic and species level). Most of the medicinal plants like Rauvolfia serpentina, Gentiana kurro, Alpinia galanga, Saussurea lappa have become endangered and threatened. Overexploitation along with lack of initiatives from government bodies, absence of proper management systems and loss of traditional knowledge are some of the factors responsible for rapid biodiversity loss. Indigenous people and biodiversity complement each other and the former has played an important role in conservation of biodiversity since time immemorial. The rural communities over the period of time have gathered a pool of indigenous knowledge/know-how for cultivation of the medicinal plants and their propagation. In the meantime, the importance of local knowledge systems in conservation and preservation of the germplasm of medicinal plants have also attained global significance. In India, various programmes on medicinal plants and their conservation based on traditional knowledge are being carried out by the local people, Non Government Organizations (NGOs), Community Based Organizations (CBOs) at various grass root levels such as the districts and villages. Though an unorganized sector, the local people are playing their role in the propagation as well as conservation of the medicinal plants through the application of the concepts of herbal gardens and local “mandis” (markets). There is a need to strengthen these linkages and build upon the indigenous knowledge base of the local people through proper documentation and building of a strong database. This paper deliberates upon the importance (therapeutic, ecological and economic) of medicinal plants and threats to their biodiversity. The communication also describes the details of some of the local efforts, which are being carried out at local levels in India for conservation of medicinal plants through the use of indigenous knowledge of traditional medicines. The paper also highlights the need to integrate indigenous knowledge into national policies and strengthen the participation of the indigenous communities in order to harness maximum potential of medicinal plant biodiversity along with sustainable management of these resources.

Renewed interest in medicinal and aromatic plants during the past 20 years has brought surging markets and production opportunities for these plant species. To enhance and maintain market growth, however, MAP production systems, whether cultivated or collected, will need to ensure sustainable production of quality plant materials that have been wholesomely grown and processed. The growing familiarity of western consumers with medicinal and aromatic plants places a premium on standardized plant materials that are organically produced and meet expectations for efficacy. Currently, market demand for MAP is nurtured by consumer demographics and by favorable impressions of bioactivity, but this demand remains susceptible to myths, traditions, and science reports associated with the plant materials. By addressing the problems of standardization and verifiable marker compounds along with issues such as plant domestication, conservation, biotechnology, and others that affect plant cultivation, producers and processors can assure acceptable products reach the marketplace and crop production opportunities will continue to grow. Introduction A recent resurgence of interest in medicinal plants in many Western nations, the continued dependence of people in much of the world on these species, and the advent of a globalized economy has brought sustainability challenges to the medicinal plant trade. The modern market for medicinal plants has, in general, grown over the past 15 years (Fig. 1), but remains fragile, subject to governmental regulations, research findings, and media publicity along with the usual factors associated with supply and demand. Indeed, many challenges to the continued growth of the market exist, including appropriate education of consumers, assurances of high quality products, and availability of a sustainable supply of plant material. The development of patentable, synthetic pharmaceuticals in the 1930s and 1940s in America and other Western countries (Table 1) resulted in the active abandonment of medicinal plants in health care, leaving new generations of both health care practitioners and the general populace with only a limited history, culture, and understanding about the appropriate use of medicinal species for preventing and treating human ailments (Craker and Gardner, 2003). Consumer confidence in pharmaceutical drug development, enhanced by the discovery of antibiotics and vaccinations that prevent or treat many diseases has lately decreased as drug costs escalate and major health problems, such as cancer, AIDS, cardiovascular disease, and numerous other problems continue to exist. An array of interests from medical professionals essentially committed to “modern” pharmaceuticals, consumers seeking alternative health care options, and herbalists promoting the use of medicinal and aromatic plants can convert challenges to market opportunities if growers and processors provide safe, useful plant products and educate consumers and health care professionals on benefits of medicinal plant products. Education of consumers and healthcare practitioners about the correct use of medicinal and aromatic plants and plant extracts will help ensure the continued recognition of the value of these products. For example, Western consumers accustomed Proc. WOCMAP III, Vol 2: Conservation Cultivation & Sustainable Use of MAPs Eds.: A. Jatisatienr, T. Paratasilpin, S. Elliott, V. Anusarnsunthorn, D. Wedge, L.E. Craker and Z.E. Gardner Acta Hort. 676, ISHS 2005 26 to taking a pharmaceutical drug and experiencing the effect of the drug within minutes to hours must learn that an herbal product that may take much longer to exhibit noticeable activity. Similarly, consumers and producers must replace the concept of taking drugs to treat pre-existing conditions with the concept of taking medicinal plants to improve general health and to treat both clinical and sub-clinical conditions. If consumers and health care providers are unfamiliar with the concepts of medicinal herb use, they cannot be expected to seek, recommend, or use these plants as medicine. Consumer Demographics As with any commodity, sales and use of medicinal plant products are influenced by the type of people that use these products. Indeed, a good share of the growth in sales of medicinal and aromatic plants and other natural products over the past 15 years can be attributed to the growth of certain demographic groups. Immigrants from Asia and Latin America have popularized a new palette of herbs and spices in restaurants and homes in the United States. This popularization has been such that U.S. spice consumption grew from 2 pounds per capita in 1976 to 3.2 pounds per capita in 1995 (Anonymous, 1998) (Fig. 2). Contributing to the increase in spice consumption is a change in lifestyle in many industrialized nations. The movement of women, historically the people responsible for meal preparation, from the home to workplace has altered traditional roles, requiring easier food preparation within the limited time available after work. In these instances, spices are frequently used to enhance the flavor of homemade and prepared meals. A highly significant trend among consumers is the increase in consumers interested in environmental issues, the so-called “green” consumers (Roper, 2002). Such consumers are willing to pay a premium for eco-friendly products, including organic foods, recycled products, and herbal remedies. These consumers value natural alternatives to conventional products including foods and medicines, thus medicinal plant products and natural food flavorings are favored by these consumers. Media Influences Media stories featuring medicinal plants appear highly influential in consumer demand and acceptance of medicinal plants. While medicinal plants were featured positively in several highly publicized stories in the late 1990s (Greenwald, 1998; Johnson et al., 1997), many of the more recent stories have been negative with concerns focused on several plant species (such as kava and ephedra) (Burros, 2002; Strugatch, 2002), with few headlines highlighting the benefits or proper use of medicinal plants. Most of the negative stories are concerned with the lack of standardization of dose or with reports of results from poorly designed research studies (Brody, 1999). Product Quality The popularization of medicinal plants in Western nations during the 1990s encouraged the formation of numerous new companies producing herbal medicines. Unfortunately, the quality of the plant materials (including differences due to natural variation, cultivation practices, and post harvest handling) and processing vary among companies, and thus the quality of oils and other extracts is highly variable. Surveys by independent laboratories have demonstrated significant variation in the quality and reported content of packaged herbal remedies (Anonymous, 2001; ConsumerLab, 2002). News reporting of such variation undoubtedly lowers consumer and health care provider confidence in medicinal plant products. Standardization of herbal products is the most commonly suggested solution for overcoming the natural variation of constituents in plant material. While standardization can help ensure product quality, recognized drawbacks to standardization exist. For example, in many plant species the active constituents of the species are not fully known. Secondly, a combination of plant constituents may be responsible for biological action of the plant or plant extract. Yet, if standard guidelines for marker compounds can be recognized and if plant selection, cultivation methodology, and processing can be

Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPS) represent a consistent part of the natural biodiversity endowment of many countries in Africa. The role and contributions of medicinal plants to healthcare, local economies, cultural integrity and ultimately the well-being of people, particularly the rural poor, have been increasingly acknowledged over the last decade. The demands of the majority of the populace for medicinal plants have been met by indiscriminate harvesting of spontaneous flora, including those in forests. This has resulted in severe loss of habitat and genetic diversity. The utilization of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) as a source of fuel, building material, food, fodder, and fibre, in African countries has, however, led to a resurgence of natural product- based industries and pharmaceutical products. This had been spurred by the interests of the developed countries for traditional medicine and natural products. Furthermore, many African medicinal plants are well-known in the international markets, e.g. Ancistrocladus abbreivatus, a Cameroun plant with anti-HIV potential. Therefore, sustainable management and conservation of these endangered medicinal plant species are important not only because of their value as potential therapeutics, but also due to worldwide reliance on traditional medicinal plants for health. Effective conservation strategies for medicinal plant should take place within four main areas: in-situ andex-situ conservation, education and research. Saving Africa’s medicinal plant resources from extinction calls for intensive management and conservation, more research and increased level of public awareness about our vanishing heritage. Key words: African, health care delivery, medicine, harvesting.

Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) play a significant role in the uplift of economic, social, cultural and ecological aspects of local communities across the world. They are the sources of botanicals that provide people with medicines for the betterment of human health. Such traditional plant-based system of medicine provides primary healthcare needs of 80% population of developing countries. Medicinal plants are extensively cultivated in the fields to meet the increasing demand for pharmaceutical industries. Thus, they are attacked by a number of insect pests in the man-made agroecosystems. The present chapter describes about major and minor insects and mites damaging some of the medicinal and aromatic plants cultivated to meet industrial need. Insect types covered are biting and chewing, sucking, borers and miners, etc., belonging to various insect orders like Hemiptera (35 insects), Coleoptera (20 insects), Lepidoptera (39 insects), Diptera (7 insects), Thysanoptera (3 insects), Isoptera (1 insect) and Tetranychidae (2 mites).

Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) are widely used in traditional foods, as food supplements or herbal medicines throughout history. Recently, MAPs are generally defined as plants that are used as drugs to prevent or cure diseases in order to maintain health and for other purposes. In general, MAPs used as food, herbal tea, supplementary food and medicine are obtained from nature or through cultivation. There is a worldwide trend of increased use MAPs, and although treating diseases with medicinal plants is more common in Far East countries, the trade of herbal medicinal products is a rising market in western societies. When we consider the trend of MAPs, Turkey is an important genetic center of many plant species thanks to its geographical location and genetic diversity. In addition, Turkey is a main partner of many countries that demand MAPs products for the world MAPs market. In this paper, the current situation of MAPs production in the world and Turkey are reviewed based on available data. In addition, this review touches upon Turkey’s historical, cultural and economic situation as well as the subsidies for and research and development (R&D) activities focused on MAPs. Finally, the opportunities, potential, problems and outlook in this area are described in order to inform future decisions about MAPs.

The relationship between in situ and ex situ conservation of species has implications for local communities, public and private land owners, entire industries and, of course, wild species. Identifying the conservation benefits and costs of the different production systems for medicinal and aromatic plants (MAP) should help guide policies as to whether species conservation should take place in nature or the nursery, or both. In all countries, the trend is towards a greater demand for cultivated material. Standardized quality and quantity of production is the main rationale for bringing a species into cultivation. However, high input costs are a substantial limitation of cultivation as long as sufficient volumes of material can still be obtained at a lower price from wild harvest. For economic reasons, the majority of MAP species will therefore continue to be harvested wild. For them, the priority conservation option is sustainable harvest from wild populations. There are important social, economic, and ecological benefits from wild harvest. Wild harvesting of medicinal plants is a chance for the poorest members of society, particularly those who do not have access to farmland, to make at least some cash income. If collectors and collecting communities can be involved in the development of propagation and management methods, the likelihood of their having an interest in protecting the wild populations from over-exploitation will be greater. Small-scale cultivation with low economic inputs can be a response to declining local stocks, generating income and supplying regional markets. Besides poverty and the break-down of traditional controls, the major challenges for sustainable wild-collection include: lack of knowledge about sustainable harvest rates and practices, undefined land use rights and lack of legislative and policy guidance. Sustainable harvesting needs to be recognized as the most important conservation strategy for most wild-harvested species and their habitats, given their current and potential contributions to local economies and their greater value to harvesters over the long term. The basic idea is that non-destructive harvests and local benefits will maintain population, species and ecosystem diversity. INTRODUCTION Since time immemorial, people have gathered plant and animal resources for their needs. Among these uses, medicinal plants play a central role, not only as traditional Proc. WOCMAP III, Vol 2: Conservation Cultivation & Sustainable Use of MAPs Eds.: A. Jatisatienr, T. Paratasilpin, S. Elliott, V. Anusarnsunthorn, D. Wedge, L.E. Craker and Z.E. Gardner Acta Hort. 676, ISHS 2005 32 medicines used in many cultures, but also as trade commodities, which meet the demand of often distant markets. For the purpose of this paper the term “medicinal and aromatic plant” (MAP) is defined as “plants used not only medicinally sensu strictu but also in the often overlapping fields of condiments, food and cosmetics”. Demand for a wide variety of wild species is increasing with growth in human needs, numbers and commercial trade. With the increased realization that some wild species are being over-exploited, a number of agencies are recommending that wild species be brought into cultivation systems (Bundesverband der Arzneimittel-Hersteller, 2002; Lambert et al., 1997; WHO, IUCN and WWF, 1993). Cultivation can also have conservation impacts, however, and these need to be better understood. The relationship between in situ and ex situ conservation of species is an interesting topic with implications for local communities, public and private land owners and managers, entire industries and, of course, wild species. Identifying the conservation benefits and costs of the different production systems for MAP should help guide policies as to whether species conservation should take place in nature or the nursery, or both (Bodeker et al., 1997). How Many MAP Are Used World-wide? The number of plant species which have at one time or another been used in some culture for medicinal purposes can only be estimated. An enumeration by the WHO from the late 1970s listed 21,000 medicinal species (Penso, 1980). However, in China alone 4,941 of 26,092 native species are used as drugs in Chinese traditional medicine (Duke and Ayensu, 1985), an astonishing 18.9 percent. If this proportion is calculated for other well-known medicinal floras and then applied to the global total of 422,000 flowering plant species (Bramwell, 2002; Govaert, 2001), it may be extrapolated that the number of plant species used for medicinal purposes is more than 52,000. How Many MAP Species Are Traded? It is difficult to assess how many MAP are commercially traded, either on a national or even an international level. The bulk of the plant material is exported from developing countries, while major markets are in the developed countries. An analysis of UNCTAD trade figures for 1981-1998 reflects this almost universal feature of MAP trade (Table 1). Adding the volumes for the five European countries in this list (94,300 tonnes) marks the dominance of Europe as an import region. Germany ranks fourth and third as importer and exporter, respectively, indicating the country’s major role as a transit hub for medicinal plant raw materials world-wide. Iqbal (1993) estimates that about “4,000 to 6,000 botanicals [= medicinal plants species] are of commercial importance”; another source refers to 5-6,000 “botanicals entering the world market” (Secretariat Convention Biological Diversity, 2001). A thorough investigation of the German medicinal plant trade identified a total of 1,543 MAP being traded or offered on the German market (Lange and Schippmann, 1997). An extension of this survey to Europe as a whole arrived at 2,000 species in trade for medicinal purposes (Lange, 1998). Recognizing the role of Europe as a sink for MAP traded from all regions of the world, it is a qualified guess that the total number of MAP in international trade will be around 2,500 species world-wide. How Many MAP Are Threatened World-wide? In many cases, the impact through direct off-take is negatively reinforced by decline owing to changes in land use. Species favoured by extensive agricultural management like Arnica montana in central Europe go into decline, with changes in farming practices towards higher nutrient input on the meadows. This requires habitat management as the key factor in managing species populations (Ellenberger, 1999). One of the goals of the IUCN Medicinal Plant Specialist Group is to identify the species that have become threatened by non-sustainable harvesting and other factors. The enormity of this task is illustrated by the following estimate. According to Walter and

The concept of rural development, it stems from many factors and variables circumstantial of area as rural tourism, agritourism, products of territory, in our case the medicinal and aromatic plants. In this paper we estimate the land fund by purpose and destination of use is grouped into three categories, where the third, with about 53 thousand hectares, is less fertile, affected by erosion, and should be used with priority. Their expansion results to be 67% in mountain areas, 31% in hilly areas and only 2% in lowland areas. The more effective alternative according to our agriculture theory and practice is that of the aromatic and medicinal plants (medicinal and aromatic plants) that have multi-dimensional cultivating interests for our country, conditioned by the climatic and soil conditions as well as the economic and organizational conditions of a range of stakeholders related to the aromatic and medicinal plants, such as their growers, collectors, aggregators, processors and traders (exporters). In terms of our country the aromatic and medicinal plants have two main situations: From the wild, outdoor and, b) Cultivated, in increasingly growing areas, in different areas and with differentiated practices. Among the the aromatic and medicinal plants in complexity, sage, thyme and oregano have obvious superiority in area planted and the production realized out of their total. The advantage of the aromatic and medicinal plants results in full use of agricultural land, in a broader employment of free labor force (mainly women), increase of income, increase of their exports, which currently account for about 52-54 % of the total that agriculture as a whole realizes in the last years, etc.

Cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAP) today is not only a promising alternative and counterpoint to wild collection, enabling preservation of natural genetic variability and survival of rare, endemic, vulnerable and endangered species, but also represents a powerful economy branch providing the high class quality raw material for pharmaceutical, cosmetic and the food industry. Domestication and cultivation of most of medicinal plants, usually conceived as a minor crops, face with many challenges on small, medium and large scale production, relating both cultivation technologies and market and prices fluctuations. Cultivated MAP material is increasingly preferred by the herbal industry, because it is easier to predict plant yield, quality and drug composition, especially when compared with wild harvested raw materials. In case of cultivated MAP material, the possibility of plant misidentification and adulteration is excluded. The profitability of cultivation of medicinal plants compete with profit achievable for standard field crops for which already exist a specialized machinery and a standard procedure for application of fertilizers and agrochemicals to control weeds, pests and diseases. For successful large scale cultivation of MAP, the high quality raw material should be produced using low input cultivation methods to be competitive at the international market and with plants collected from the wild. The most common issues with which the producers of medicinal plants encountered are the market, abundance and accessibility of wild populations, agro-environmental conditions, labor availability and costs, investments in machinery, post-harvest processing, and profitability of production. Superior genotypes are very important for profitable production of the high quality medicinal plants’ row material. Out of all cultivated medicinal plant species, only a small percentage is clearly genetically defined and represented on the seed market in term of variety. Similarly to the other crops, traditional breeding methods, as well as biotechnological procedures and selection assisted by molecular markers are applied in development of new varieties and cultivars of MAP, aiming at improvement of their desirable characteristics. This refers to increased drug yield and the content of required secondary metabolites. Mapping of genes and specific DNA sequences involved in biosynthesis of particular metabolite classes seems to be a future challenge in MAP breeding programs. Most of actual research is focused on genetic variability among different taxa of medicinal plants using several types of DNA markers, including restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), amplified fragment length polymorphic DNA (AFLP), random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), cleavage amplified polymorphic sequence (CAPS), simple sequence repeat (SSR), and sequence characterized amplified region (SCAR) markers. Although the primary target for trait manipulation in medicinal plants is the content of active compounds, for development as crops, basic agronomic characters related to uniformity, stability, growth and development, and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, must also be improved.KeywordsCultivation versus collectionDecision makingBreeding approaches

Herbal food supplements produced from medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) are becoming increasingly popular to complement synthetic pharmaceuticals. This category of products is regulated under more lenient food product regulations rather than the stringent rules applicable to medicines. The effectiveness and safety of these products rely on various factors, including the varying phytochemical composition of the original plant material, potential adulteration, substitution and contamination from biological and chemical sources. The SAFEMAPS scientific research project aims to provide integrated analytical solutions that enhance the compliance and quality of food supplements derived from aromatic and medicinal plants. This project seeks to improve the safe use of these products by consumers, while promoting the sustainable exploitation of plant biodiversity. Within this project, an experimental model will be developed to assess the identity, authenticity, traceability and quality of herbal food supplements. This model includes analytical solutions that integrate phytochemical and molecular genetic analyses. The proposed solutions will prioritise the needs of the food supplements industry, particularly regarding the quality and compliance of herbal products sold in Romania and across the European single market. These solutions will also tackle various aspects of the supply chain, including growers or collectors of medicinal and aromatic plants, processors, importers and final consumers.

At the University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine in Cluj-Napoca there is an old and valuable tradition regarding the knowledge and valorification of medicinal and aromatic plants. In this institution, a Medicinal Plant Resort was established (in 1904), with activity until between the two world war period, being known and appreciated in the country and abroad. Starting with 1970 (50 years ago), the scientific researches in the field of medicinal plants were resumed at USAMV Cluj-Napoca, within the Phytotechnics department of this institution. The Cluj Department of Phytotechnics has carried out multi-annual research contracts with the Fundulea Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research Department, since its establishment (in 1975) and has maintained scientific collaborations with the Faculty of Pharmacy from Cluj-Napoca, with Plafar Cluj etc. Since 1993, when The Hop and Medicinal Plants Culture Research Center was established at the Cluj Phytotechnics Department, the investigations in the field of medicinal and aromatic plants have diversified. Under the shield of this research center, since its establishment (in 1993), the journal "Hop and Medicinal Plants" is published, which publishes scientific papers on medicinal and aromatic plants, made at USAMV Cluj-Napoca and other institutions of research in the country and abroad. This paper presents the evolution of investigations in the field of medicinal and aromatic plants within USAMV Cluj-Napoca, highlighting the studies conducted from 1970 to the present. During this period (for five decades)8are presented the doctoral theses referring to medicinal and aromatic plants defended in USAMV Cluj-Napoca. Finally, the paper includes books of medicinal and aromatic plants developed and published by teachers from Phytotechnics in Cluj.

India (8-30 N and 68-97.5 E) exhibits a wide range in topography and climate, which has a bearing on its vegetation and floristic composition. This subcontinent is one of the World’s 12 leading Biodiversity Centres, encompassing 16 different agro-climatic zones, 10 vegetation zones, 25 biotic provinces and about 426 habitats of specific species. It has been estimated that about 45,000 plant species (nearly 20% of the global species) occurs in the Indian Sub-continent. About 3,500 species of both higher and lower plant groups are of medicinal values. More than 80 percent of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAP) are collected from 17 million hectares of Indian forest land. However, many of these, due to over-exploitation have become rare (Rheum emodi, Aconitum deinorrhizum), threatened (Rauvolfia serpentina, Berberis artistata), or endangered ones (Sassurea lappa, Dioscorea deltoidea). Problems arising out of rapid genetic loss of medicinal plants forced the need for international co-operation and co-ordination to undertake programmes for conservation of medicinal plants to ensure that adequate quantities are available for future generations. Cultivation of medicinal and aromatic species gives scope to improve the quality of the drugs. Merits of commercial cultivation of MAP is the outcome of implementation of number of critical factors like locate-selection; good genetically stable planting materials; good agrotechnological practices; nutrient input; harvesting management and implementation of suitable post harvesting techniques to preserve the end product till smart and effective marketing arrangements are made. There is a growing demand today for plant-based medicines, health products, pharmaceuticals, food supplements, cosmetics etc. in the international market. The international market of medicinal plants is over 60 billion US dollar per year, which is growing at the rate of 7 percent per annum. The present export of herbal raw materials and medicines from India is about US dollar 100-114 million approximately per year. India is one of the major exporter of crude drugs mainly to six developed countries viz. USA, Germany, France, Switzerland, U.K. and Japan, who share between them 75-80 per cent of the total export market. CULTIVATION OF MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS (MAP) IN INDIA Techno-economical Considerations for Cultivation of MAP in India Loss of genetic diversity, particularly related to potential medicinal species has taken place; more so in the Worlds’ tropical rain forests and its conservation aspect has, of late, captured the attention of herbal scientists and experts (Duke, 1985). With emphasis it can be stated that the ultimate solution of medicinal plant conservation is medicinal plant cultivation in a scientific way (Foster, 1993). Botanical producer will desire to optimise yield from production; whereas user or entrepreneur will want to manufacture a product of uniform quality. Environmental factors play dramatic roles on biomass yield and composition, and also on its consistency. Proc. Int. Conf. on MAP Eds. J. Bernath et al. Acta Hort. 576, ISHS 2002 192 The process of selection of geographical site is very important and will have to be tailormade to meet the requirement of a particular botanical or a group of botanicals with ecological homogeneity. Elevation of the region has a profound bearing on successful cultivation of MAP. Indian cultivation of Datura innoxia, Atropa belladona, Catharanthus roseus, Rauvolfia serpentina, Cepecacuanha spp. and Hyoscyamus niger are appropriate examples (Table 1). Slope face is another factor, which determines variations of diurnal light intensity and temperature necessary for better growth and development of MAP. Latitude also have pronounced effect on biomass composition e.g. Atropa belladona. Adequate soil moisture and moderate nutrient status generally meet the requirements for growing MAP in India. However in some cases (e.g. Psyllium, Cassia, Catharanthus, Withania, Rauvolfia, Cymbopogon), the plantation can profitably thrive on low fertility soils of warmer regions. Pyrethrum, Solanum spp., Jasminium and Ocimum spp. can be economically grown over medium fertility soils. In case of Papaver, Dioscorea spp., Mentha spp. and Cymbopogon spp., high fertility soil and liberal irrigation will be necessary for successful growth of plantation. Rained cultivation in India is widely followed in Withania, Cassia, Vetiveria and Eucalyptus citriodora. Medicinal and aromatic crops are generally adapted to a wide range of soil texture and pH. Plantago, Cassia, Cymbopogon growing over light soils become high yielding when grown over loam and clay loam (nearly 80% increase in yield in case of Plantago ovata). Vetiveria is unique for its tolerance to soil alkalinity and periodic flooding and water logging of fields; conditions however producing no adverse effect on total oil yield and its composition. Cinchona, Cephalis and Coptis have preference for acidic soils (5-6 pH); whereas species like Aloe, Pandanus, Urginea, Commiphora are grown in soils of higher pH. Day length have been found to influence growth and development of certain medicinal and aromatic crops in India. Commercial cultivation of Mentha, Glycyrrhiza, Coptis, Humulus prefer more than 14 hours of day length for high crop yield whereas citronella, Pelargonium and Pogostemon are short-day plants and essential oil production can be increased by nearly 25% by satisfying appropriate light requirements to these crops. Senna is a day-neutral plant and cultivation success is independent of prevalent day-light duration. In crops like Solanum, Digitalis, Rauvolfia and Dioscorea, effects of photoperiodic cycles (long days) have also been clearly established (Chatterjee, 1986). Regulatory role of light intensity on improvement of performance of a number of medicinally important crops has been established. In Mentha, ample sunshine is necessary at maturity for higher content of oil and menthol content. Economics of cultivation of this species is very much affected if crops are harvested in rainy or cloudy days due to the fact that higher conversion of menthol into menthone. Amongst other plantation crops, low light intensity favours production like Cephalis; thereby necessitating artificial shading during commercial cultivation. Only 20-25 percent day light intensity is recommended for optimum productivity performance. Berberine content is nearly 10-15 percent higher in roots of Coptis japonica, when on average, 70 percent of incident light is intercepted. Additional light promotes the AP accumulation in Digitalis spp. and Solanum khasianum (Table 2.). Reduced light intensity (nearly 40 %) by growing Cinchona under shade tree increases percentage of quinine and related alkaloids by more than 30 percent; as well as bark yield by 30-40 % (Table 3). Role of atmospheric temperature on success of medicinal and aromatic plant cultivation can also be well exemplified. Pyrethrum growing in southern hills is favoured by lower minimum temperature increasing the yield of dry matter and total pyrethrin contents. In general increasing temperature up to a maximum (prior to physiological damage) favour increased secondary metabolite production in many alkaloid and terpene producing medicinal plants. Composition of secondary metabolite may also be changed. Low temperature favours morphine increase in poppy and decreases the total principle content.

Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) are cultivated worldwide and are used for various purposes including traditional herbal remedies in most of the developing countries like India. Medicinal plant parts are generally used as Ayurveda medicines across the country. Essential oils extracted from aromatic plants are used for aroma in perfumery and food industries. MAPs can support the livelihood of farmers since they collect raw material from the cultivated medicinal plants which can be used directly by the industries. Healthy and disease-free plant material is therefore essential for maintaining the quality of raw material derived from MAPs. However, MAPs cultivation is facing problems and both the quantity and quality of biomass are adversely affected by the damages caused by pests and pathogens including phytonematodes. Phytonematodes negatively affect almost every crop in the world. Current management practices are not enough to completely manage phytonematodes. Application of synthetic chemicals/ nematicides is limited due to environmental concerns. It is therefore crucial to develop additional management approaches through the application of environmentally benign tactics. A lot of research has been performed around the world, leading to valuable outcomes and remarkable findings capable of improving farmers’ income. This mini-review discusses recent findings on the application of beneficial microbes to manage phytonematodes in some of the important MAPs, Brahmi, Ashwagandha and Basil.

This special issue aims to bring together knowledge related to research in the broad scientific field of plants. The aspects of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) and plants in general covered include the study of the biological and chemical activities of extracts rich in phytochemicals, essential oils and secondary metabolites by in vitro and in vivo tests, ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological studies, biodiversity, plants morphological and physiological characterizations. MAPs are defined as all raw organic materials ‎‎(trees, shrubs and herbs) whose active elements of their respective organs (fruits, ‎flowers, leaves, roots, stems, buds, bulbs) are likely to be used.‎ The range of plants applications is vast, since it affects the ‎medical sector (pharmaceutical industry, allopathy, phytotherapy, homeopathy, ‎aromatherapy), that of cosmetics and perfumes, chemistry (detergents, dyes, ‎varnishes, fireworks, etc.) and the agro-food sector (minimally processed products ‎such as infusion plants, spices and dry herbs, etc.).‎Ethnobotanical research estimates there are approximately 50 000 to 70 000 plant ‎species used in traditional and modern herbal medicine around the world (Schippmann et al., 2006). The total amount of MAPs used by the pharmaceutical, ‎cosmetic, chemical and food industries is very difficult to estimate. Globally, more ‎than 35 000 are used by the pharmaceutical, chemical or cosmetic industries according ‎to professionals. There is growing interest by scientists and the World Health Organization in medicinal ‎plants in many countries, especially in developing countries where access to modern ‎health care is limited. This action involves evaluating their efficacy and harmlessness, ‎and ensuring the safety and standardization of their use. ‎ Plants in general arouse a growing interest of the largest research centres ‎at the international level and are increasingly sought after by the agro-forestry and pharmaceutical ‎industries at the international, regional and national levels and therefore offer real ‎opportunities for socio-economic development of countries.‎Algeria, due to its geographical location, benefits from a very diverse climate and ‎flora. The plants grow in abundance in the coastal, mountainous and also Saharan ‎regions, many of which are renowned for their agro-forestry importance, medicinal virtue and used in traditional ‎medicine in health care (human and animal) and for culinary and cosmetic purposes.‎ These plants are potential natural remedies that can be used as a curative and ‎preventive therapeutic means, but this practice remains limited to patients and ‎herbalists who still have this empirical know-how.‎ The richness of the Algerian flora is therefore indisputable. It contains a large number ‎of species classified according to their degree of rarity: 289 fairly rare species, 647 rare ‎species, 640 very rare species, 35 extremely rare species and 168 endemic species (FAO, 2012). This situation requires a detailed inventory, a morphobiometric, biochemical and genetic characterization for an efficient management of this potential. The MAPs most in demand from herbalists in Algeria are most ‎often spontaneous (wild) in nature, which makes their quantification difficult.‎ The actors involved in the plants sector are very numerous and diversified and they attached ‎to several departments (agriculture, forestry, research, industry, commerce, finance, etc.).‎Algeria has nearly 2 689 herbalists registered with the National Trade Register Center ‎‎(CNRC), with "trader" status. These professionals are very active in this sector, they ‎seek to source and supply their customers. At the interface between collection and ‎distribution, herbalists have a central function in the organization of medicinal plants ‎on the Algerian domestic market. ‎ The informal is very present. In most cases, the plants sold are not subject to quality ‎controls. Some of them can be dangerous even if they are naturally extracted; they can ‎represent a real danger for the patient, as they may contain toxic components ‎unknown to the seller and to the patient. Out of naivety, ignorance or commercial ‎calculation, herbal sellers claim to have helped cure some patients of their diseases ‎classified as incurable, including diseases such as cancer and neurological diseases (Ilbert et al., 2016).

This special issue aims to bring together knowledge related to research in the broad scientific field of plants. The aspects of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) and plants in general covered include the study of the biological and chemical activities of extracts rich in phytochemicals, essential oils and secondary metabolites by in vitro and in vivo tests, ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological studies, biodiversity, plants morphological and physiological characterizations. MAPs are defined as all raw organic materials ‎‎(trees, shrubs and herbs) whose active elements of their respective organs (fruits, ‎flowers, leaves, roots, stems, buds, bulbs) are likely to be used.‎ The range of plants applications is vast, since it affects the ‎medical sector (pharmaceutical industry, allopathy, phytotherapy, homeopathy, ‎aromatherapy), that of cosmetics and perfumes, chemistry (detergents, dyes, ‎varnishes, fireworks, etc.) and the agro-food sector (minimally processed products ‎such as infusion plants, spices and dry herbs, etc.).‎Ethnobotanical research estimates there are approximately 50 000 to 70 000 plant ‎species used in traditional and modern herbal medicine around the world (Schippmann et al., 2006). The total amount of MAPs used by the pharmaceutical, ‎cosmetic, chemical and food industries is very difficult to estimate. Globally, more ‎than 35 000 are used by the pharmaceutical, chemical or cosmetic industries according ‎to professionals. There is growing interest by scientists and the World Health Organization in medicinal ‎plants in many countries, especially in developing countries where access to modern ‎health care is limited. This action involves evaluating their efficacy and harmlessness, ‎and ensuring the safety and standardization of their use. ‎ Plants in general arouse a growing interest of the largest research centres ‎at the international level and are increasingly sought after by the agro-forestry and pharmaceutical ‎industries at the international, regional and national levels and therefore offer real ‎opportunities for socio-economic development of countries.‎Algeria, due to its geographical location, benefits from a very diverse climate and ‎flora. The plants grow in abundance in the coastal, mountainous and also Saharan ‎regions, many of which are renowned for their agro-forestry importance, medicinal virtue and used in traditional ‎medicine in health care (human and animal) and for culinary and cosmetic purposes.‎ These plants are potential natural remedies that can be used as a curative and ‎preventive therapeutic means, but this practice remains limited to patients and ‎herbalists who still have this empirical know-how.‎ The richness of the Algerian flora is therefore indisputable. It contains a large number ‎of species classified according to their degree of rarity: 289 fairly rare species, 647 rare ‎species, 640 very rare species, 35 extremely rare species and 168 endemic species (FAO, 2012). This situation requires a detailed inventory, a morphobiometric, biochemical and genetic characterization for an efficient management of this potential. The MAPs most in demand from herbalists in Algeria are most ‎often spontaneous (wild) in nature, which makes their quantification difficult.‎ The actors involved in the plants sector are very numerous and diversified and they attached ‎to several departments (agriculture, forestry, research, industry, commerce, finance, etc.).‎Algeria has nearly 2 689 herbalists registered with the National Trade Register Center ‎‎(CNRC), with trader status. These professionals are very active in this sector, they ‎seek to source and supply their customers. At the interface between collection and ‎distribution, herbalists have a central function in the organization of medicinal plants ‎on the Algerian domestic market. ‎ The informal is very present. In most cases, the plants sold are not subject to quality ‎controls. Some of them can be dangerous even if they are naturally extracted; they can ‎represent a real danger for the patient, as they may contain toxic components ‎unknown to the seller and to the patient. Out of naivety, ignorance or commercial ‎calculation, herbal sellers claim to have helped cure some patients of their diseases ‎classified as incurable, including diseases such as cancer and neurological diseases (Ilbert et al., 2016).

The effects of nutrients on the growth and quality of medicinal and aromatic plants, affecting athletic abilities