“It is not my objective to be metaphoric or allegorical”

Dystopian literature has been a dynamic and reflective genre, mirroring the anxieties and aspirations of society across the 20th and 21st centuries. This research paper embarks on a comprehensive comparative study, tracing the evolution of dystopian literature in these two distinct eras. The central research question addressed is: "How has dystopian literature evolved from the 20th century to the 21st century, and what insights does this evolution offer into the changing dynamics of society and culture?"   The research design employed for this study is a comparative analysis, which involves examining thematic shifts, narrative innovations, and contextual influences within dystopian narratives. A single source, the Dystopian Literature Anthology, was selected for data collection, encompassing a curated collection of dystopian novels from both centuries. Data analysis methods included close reading, content analysis, thematic analysis, and comparative analysis.   The findings of this study reveal significant thematic evolution within dystopian literature. While 20th-century dystopian narratives predominantly explored political totalitarianism and nuclear annihilation, the 21st century witnessed a broader range of themes, including technology, the environment, identity, and resilience. Character dynamics and agency also transformed, with 21st-century protagonists characterized by greater empowerment and moral complexity. The cultural and technological context of the 21st century is evident in dystopian literature, with narratives addressing the internet, social media, globalization, and their impact on modern life. Additionally, there is a notable emphasis on diversity, identity, and inclusivity in 21st-century dystopian literature, reflecting broader societal conversations.   Some 21st-century dystopian narratives introduce elements of hope and resilience, challenging the traditionally bleak outlook of the genre. This research contributes to a deeper understanding of how literature evolves as a reflection of societal changes, highlighting the adaptability and responsiveness of dystopian literature to the contemporary world. The implications of this research extend to the fields of literature, culture, and society, emphasizing the critical role of literature in mirroring and shaping societal dynamics. Dystopian literature continues to inspire critical engagement, cultural reflection, and discussions on social, ethical, and political issues. It serves as a resilient and relevant medium for exploring the human condition in an ever-shifting world.

Purpose: The aim of the study was to investigate revolutionary movements in the 20th century: a comparative analysis. Methodology: This study adopted a desk methodology. A desk study research design is commonly known as secondary data collection. This is basically collecting data from existing resources preferably because of its low cost advantage as compared to a field research. Our current study looked into already published studies and reports as the data was easily accessed through online journals and libraries. Findings: Revolutionary movements in the 20th century, such as the Russian Revolution, the Chinese Communist Revolution, and the Cuban Revolution, each aimed to overthrow existing regimes and establish socialist states. Led by figures like Lenin, Mao Zedong, and Fidel Castro, these movements varied in their approaches and outcomes, yet all significantly impacted global politics and ideologies. Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: Dependency theory, social movement theory & world-systems theory may be used to anchor future studies on revolutionary movements in the 20th century: a comparative analysis. Recognize the agency of grassroots movements and civil society organizations in driving revolutionary change, and support initiatives that empower marginalized communities to articulate their grievances and pursue social justice. Prioritize policies that address the underlying socio-economic inequalities, political repression, and cultural marginalization that often fuel revolutionary movements, focusing on poverty reduction, social welfare, and inclusive development.

his paper analyses the population censuses on the Polish area, particularly, the subject of censuses and their thematic scope. the study refers to the censuses in the 19th and 20th centuries (the study closes with the 1988 census). The paper consists of three parts. The first one presents the origins of censuses and the first censuses conducted in Europe in the 18th century. This part also shows the efforts of international statistical institutions to normalise and standardise national censuses. It allowed for building international standards to make national censuses comparable. The second part shows censuses in the 19th century, and the third part discusses censuses in the 20th century. A fundamental feature of the censuses is a set of questions common to demographic and social issues. This makes it possible to carry out comparative analysis in different regional cross-sectionson a secular basis. It should also be provided that census categories are not always comparable, hence various conversions and estimates are necessary. The universality of the censuses have made them a huge organizational challenge each time. The greatest effort was borne by the statistical institutions responsible, not only for conducting the censuses, but also during the compilation and publication of the data.

This study analyzes the impact of trade on architectural structures and examines how caravanserais and khans gradually transformed into commercial centers. Sixty-one structures built between the 13th and 20th centuries in the Southeastern Anatolia Region were identified, though historical information was unavailable for 12 of them. Among the 49 examined buildings, four belonged to the Seljuk period, 3 to the Early Ottoman period, and 42 to the Ottoman period. Eight well-preserved structures with clearly identifiable architectural elements and documented construction dates were selected for detailed analysis. The selection process included examples from the Seljuk (13th century), Early Ottoman (14th-15th century), and Ottoman (16th century and beyond) periods. Field studies were conducted to document the structures' current condition. In contrast, archival documents and official records were used to analyze architectural plans, facade designs, and the relationship between open and closed spaces. Comparative analyses were carried out through visuals, tables, and drawings, which were systematically converted into schematic representations and categorized based on their construction periods. The findings reveal that trade routes and economic changes directly influenced the architectural plans of khans and caravanserais. While security-focused structures were common in the 13th century, declining trade in the 14th century led to the preference for smaller, enclosed plans. From the 15th century onwards, courtyards were reintroduced, and during the Ottoman period, khans evolved into commercial centers. After the 16th century, shop units were added, the number of floors increased, and aesthetic elements became more prominent in the 18th and 19th centuries. This study highlights the architectural transformation of khans and caravanserais, emphasizing the impact of trade on their identity and the significance of factors contributing to the preservation of cultural heritage.

The article examines the general trends in design and construction in accordance with the model projects on classicism in Russia and the city of Tomsk. The development stages of design and construction in Russia late in the 18th and early 19th centuries are presented. Stand ard design ensures fast and high-quality construction throughout the country. This phenomenon covers almost and all design areas has a strong impact on the architecture of the Russian cities. The research concerns the preservation of historical buildings built in accordance with the model projects widespread in the Russian cities in the 18–19th centuries. Despite many works on classical architecture in the Russian cities, it has not been studied enough for Siberian cities and, in particular the city of Tomsk.The purpose of this work is to study the development stages of the model design, identify bjects built according to the model projects in Tomsk and other cities of Russia, and carry out the comparative analysis. The following methods are explored: the literature review, comparative architectural analysis and cross-sectional analysis of the data obtained.The novelty is the comparative analysis of classical buildings in Russia. This research involves previously unpublished archival materials and field studies.It is found that in the 18–19th centuries, the spontaneous construction was ceased in Russia.The streets took on clear geometric outlines and the houses met the given requirements accompanied by the model projects. In Tomsk and other Siberian cities, the model projects were based on wooden architecture that continued until the end of the 19th century. Buildings built during this period already had deviations from the classical style, namely the odd number of windows, symmetry breaking, and fillet decoration.

The area of this study includes the south-east of the Republic of Bashkortostan (Abzelilovo, Burzyan, Baimak, Beloretsk districts) predominantly inhabited by the Bashkir people. The chronological framework of the research spans the 20th and early 21st centuries, i.e. the time when horse wedding decoration was still used by the Bashkirs in some locations, attesting to preser-vation of long-standing ethnic traditions. The aim of this study is to analyse decoration elements of horse in the wedding cere-mony among the south-eastern Bashkirs in the 20th and early 21st centuries, including caparisons, saddle blankets, breastplates, bellybands, and cruppers. The source basis includes author’s fieldwork materials collected during in 2010, 2017–2019 and 2023, as well as archival materials, museum collections in the city of Ufa and rural school museums preserving rare exhibits. Standard scientific methods, such as comparative historical research, scientific description and analysis, have been used. Du-ring the collection of field materials, traditional ethnographic research approach was also used, including observation, photofixa-tion and in-depth interviewing conducted in the Bashkir language, which allowed us recording local names of the wedding horse decoration. Analyzed were ornamented caparisons, saddle blankets, breastplates, bellybands and cruppers as attributes of the Bashkir wedding ceremony in the south-east of the Republic of Bashkortostan. The festive horse decoration was part of a bridal dowry; the bride herself participated in its making. The bridal horse decoration in the wedding ceremony performed social, sac-ral and aesthetic functions. It was enriched with sacral signs and symbols to protect from bewitching and evil spirits. A young wife moved to husband’s house on her horse decorated for wedding accompanied by her husband, girlfriends and close rela-tives. Until the 19th century, the bride would have ridden astride, but already at the turn of the 20th century that would be quite a rare phenomenon. However, in some villages there were single cases of the observance of this rite even in the mid-20th century. It has been found that in the 20th century in the south-east of the Republic of Bashkortostan several types of wedding capari-sons, different in their ornaments, materials and techniques, were used. There were several types of appliqué and kuskar em-broidery. The altered form of the wedding horse decoration has been preserved until the early 21st century.

Introduction. The first state educational institution for teacher’s training was the teachers’ seminary established in 1783. However, the teaching profession appeared in Russia long before that and was supported by social request. This fact builds questions about transformations of public expectations in relation to teachers, i.e. about the history of the social order to teachers. That order had not been realized and reflected in some documents for a long time, but its influence on education in Russia can be clearly observed already in the 17th century. Purpose setting. The article attempts to determine features of its becoming. Methodology of the study. The research is based on a large layer of literature, on the principles of dialectics and historicism, and uses comparative historical analysis, deduction, culturomics, content analysis, statistics and other theoretical methods. Results. Features of forming of a social order to teachers in the 17th and 18th centuries are identified and specified. The factors and conditions of its forming in the specified historical period are characterized; its structural components were determined, also patterns of changes in the social order for teachers and its actualization time were detected. Conclusion. In the 17th century, there was an order for teachers in the Russian Tsardom, the subject of which was the church, but partly also the state and townspeople. The state imposed requirements on teacher’s work, regulating some aspects of school organizing. The emerging in those times trend of transition from religious characteristics of the teacher to professional ones finally took shape at the beginning of the 18th century, when the state order for teachers had been formed. By the middle of the century, the image of the teacher had radically changed, and there were requirements of professionalism in the being taught science and of positive personal characteristics, which found its place in organizing of the first teachers’ seminary: the order for teacher’s methodological training began thanks to it. Patterns of formation of a social order to teachers (society always has high expectations from either professional or personal characteristics of the teacher; during periods of social conflicts and changes the requirements for his personal characteristics are actualized; that transfer depends on social stability) confirm that clearly it depends on historical periods and socio-political conditions.

Introduction - a century of political geography, Peter J. Taylor: fin-de-siecle geopolitics war and order the rise of the state the American century prologue - fin de siecle geopolitics - Mackinder, Hobson and theories of global closure, Gerry Kearns: fin de siecle geoeconomics Mackinder and Hobson global economics global strategy global development weaknesses of the ecological view of geopolitics. Part 1 Geopolitical world orders, Peter J. Taylor: geopolitical analysis geopolitical world order of the British succession the Cold War geopolitical world order a new geopolitical world order. Part 2 Political geography of war and peace, John O'Loughlin and Herman van der Wusten: introduction 20th century, bloody century wars, wars everywhere, is not a theory there? great power developments in the 20th century fragile underpinnings of peace temporal and spatial distribution of war war cycles and economic cycles in the 20th century global wars local wars. Part 3 The rise and decline of the corporate-welfare state - a comparative analysis in global context, R.J. Johnson: the state in operation - some quantitative indicators why the state? the economic context of state action 20th-century crises and the state in the core of the capitalist world-economy the free economy and the strong state four vignettes - New Zealand, West Germany, the United States, the United Kingdom crisis and the state beyond the capitalist core. Part 4 Colonialism, postcolonialism and the political geography of the Third World, Stuart Corbridge: the commands of empire (writing history) the search for a text (writing politics). Part 5 The United States and American hegemony, John Agnew: American hegemony and American history America's rise to power superpower years the new world order? America's impasse. Part 6 Epilogue - fin de siecle geopolitics - towards a geographical dialogue: nationalism versus World Society - a view from Russia, Vladimir Kolossov from hegemony to co-operation - a view from Japan, Akihiko Takagi demography and division - a view from the Middle East, Ghazi Falah globalization and the semi-periphery - a view from Brazil, Bertha K. Becker democracy and privatization - a view from India, Chandra Pal Singh coercion and instability - a view from Nigeria/Africa, C.O. Ikporukpo.

Historians of the English language and students of literary style alike have long agreed that a key change took place in American prose style at the end of the late 19th century, when a more informal, ‘democratic' register came to dominate fictional prose. However, despite its historical and critical importance, neither the features nor the precise historical development of this shift has been the subject of systematic analysis. In this essay, we undertake an in-depth analysis of one key feature of what became known as the colloquial style: patterns of linguistic repetition. With the aid of quantitative analysis, we demonstrate that the use of repetition is in itself a reliable metric for automatically detecting the presence of colloquial discourse. We find that colloquial repetition does indeed increase in American fiction over the course of the 19th and early 20th century, but, via comparative analysis, that this phenomenon may not be limited to American prose. Finally, we explore the semantics of these patterns of repetition, demonstrating first that repetition is broadly characteristic of represented speech in writing, and secondly that changes over time in the semantic contents of repetitions demonstrate a clear increase in colloquial, informal language.

Propaganda has a rich history and an equally rich literature. Scholars do not always agree on a single definition of propaganda, but Jowett and O’Donnell’s 2019 book, Propaganda and Persuasion (Los Angeles: SAGE), defines it as a “deliberate, systematic attempt to shape perceptions, manipulate cognitions, and direct behavior to achieve a response that furthers the desired intent of the propagandist.” Persuasive communication itself has been used since the beginning of communication. The term “propaganda,” however, did not come into use until the 1600s and was first associated with disseminating or promoting particular ideas, such as propagating religious faith. Historical analysis of propaganda has focused on the 20th and 21st century when propaganda was considered a widespread issue and has increasingly become an accepted area of study. Given the widespread use of atrocity propaganda in World War I and the power of the Nazi propaganda machine in World War II, 20th-century wars generally receive the most attention from scholars. Historians and communications scholars have attempted to remedy this more modern focus with major anthologies spanning earlier periods. However, as propaganda can often take a host of forms and did not come into the general modern meaning of the word until the 20th century, studies of earlier periods often focus on communication or iconography. Much of the English-language work done on propaganda also skews extremely toward the United States and the United Kingdom. Some of the earliest works on propaganda came from those who worked in propaganda in some capacity. These early works have gradually been supplemented with rigorous historical and communication analyses. The two fields are the most prolific in their study of propaganda, but art historians have also added to the understanding of the visual culture of propaganda and scholars in other fields such as sociology, politics, and rhetoric have also added to the literature on propaganda. Scholars also have devoted attention to the close relationship between propaganda and technology. Together these efforts make for a diverse field that examines propaganda products, their creation, their dissemination, and their purpose. Because of the ephemeral nature of most propaganda and the way various archives have or have not been available to scholars, propaganda can be a challenging topic of study. Some works attempt to study the reception of propaganda while others focus on the creation and dissemination process. Monographs focusing on a single country or conflict outnumber those works spanning conflicts and continents. Several notable exceptions have comparative analysis or bring together works from multiple perspectives. Propaganda will continue to be of vital interest to scholars and hopefully will include works from scholars with increasing language skills and access to diverse archives.

The author analyzes the history of formation and current state of Turkey-Mexico political and economic relations in the context of Ankara intercontinental relations with the Latin American region. Comparative analysis of the two powers in their geo-economic ‘weight’, international activity, and other aspects is carried out. Evaluation of historical aspect of bilateral relations is specially emphasized. For the first time in Russian Latin American studies the evolution of Turkey-Mexico diplomatic relations in the 20th century is studied in their phases, including political contacts dynamics at the turn of the 20th and 21st century. The author also analyzes current state of countries’ trade and economic relations, as well as their interaction at the international arena.

This article studies verbal and non-verbal means of implementing parental discourse strategies and tactics used by representatives of the British linguistic and cultural community of the 18th and 21st centuries and establishes the changes they underwent in the speech of the father’s and the mother’s discursive personality. The research is substantiated by linguists’ growing interest in the ways communicative behaviour is formed, including its diachronic aspects. The research is aimed at establishing characteristic features of British parents and children’s communication basing on British fiction films, whose main characters are typical representatives of the Georgian era (the series “Aristocrats” and “Pride and Prejudice”) and the present (“Broadchurch”). The object of study is the strategies and tactics of the British parental discourse of the corresponding centuries, and the subject is verbal and/or non-verbal variants of their actualization. The study is based on the methods of discursive and contextual analysis, which allowed us to reveal the specifics of typical communicative strategies and tactics functioning in the British parental discourse, and comparative analysis, which contributed to identification of changes of strategies and tactics configuration in the speech of the father’s and the mother’s discursive personality of the 21st century compared to the speech of the father’s and the mother’s discursive personality of the 18th century. We claim that the speech of both the father’s and the mother’s discursive personality in both historical periods is dominated by cooperative strategies with a tendency to a moderate increase in the frequency of use, with the leading strategy for both historical periods being that of cooperation; the leading tactics vary – providing advice and instructions in the 18th century and discussion in the 21st century. Confrontation strategies do not significantly vary in terms of gender and chronological factors either: for both centuries under study, the conflict strategy is the leading one; the dominant tactics for the father’s discursive personality is order, for the mother’s discursive personality it is condemnation/reproach.

Climate reconstruction of the Pokuttia and Bukovyna Carpathians, its foreland and adjacent mountain and foothill areas in the 19th century is performed due to a dense network of meteorological observations, starting from the 60s of the 19th century in the Bukovyna and Galychyna provinces within the Austrian Monarchy and several paleoclimatic reconstructions, mainly dendroclimatic, carried out on the basis of data collected in the Eastern Carpathians. Spatial interpolations using universal kriging has been performed based on in-situ homogenized data of weather stations of the second half of the 19th century – the first half of the 20th century. The longest series of observations in the city of Chernivtsi since 1852 has enabled to track multidecadal changes in average annual and monthly air temperatures and atmospheric precipitation. The centennial course of these climatic indicators corresponds to the general patterns characteristic of all the Eastern Carpathians with the most pronounced continentality among the rest of the Carpathian regions. Cold decades in the second half of the 19th century in Chernivtsi are considered the continuation of the coldest period of 1720–1850 in the Eastern Carpathians in the last 600 years. The spatial distribution peculiarities of average monthly temperatures in the second half of the 19th – at the beginning of 20th centuries in the region are manifested in a pronounced orographic steplike isotherm pattern. In the second half of the 19th century – the first half of the 20th century, the average long-term temperatures ranged from +3.5 to +4 °C in the southwest to +8 °C in the north and northeast in accordance to the orientation of the mountains. Inversion features of the valleys and internal lowlands are revealed in the spatial distribution of average temperatures, especially in the summer months. These features are also distinguished by a lower amount of atmospheric precipitation in the dry months of spring and autumn. Spatial distribution of temperature and precipitation in the second half of the 19th century – at the beginning of 20th century is also distinctive in the the inner mountain ridges of the adjacent Hryniava and Chornyi Dil mountains. These mountains are founded to be the coldest, often with a lack of meteorological summer and a maximum of precipitation in the spring and autumn months. A comparative analysis of the spatio-temporal distribution of average multi-year air temperatures and precipitation at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries was performed. In general, similar distribution of air temperatures and precipitation is revealed. The differences are more noticeable in the monthly context, especially in summer and in the mountainous parts of the region. Comparing the turns of 19th and 20th centuries, the average July monthly temperature in the southernmost mountain massifs of the region has increased by 1 °C, while in the foothills the increase does not exceed 0.5 °C. In the annual context, changes are less noticeable. The range of air temperature changes from north to south is the same at the turn of both the 19th and 20th centuries. The city of Chernivtsi is founded to become a bit warmer (by 0.5 °C), but interannual fluctuations of annual air temperatures within 2 °C are typical throughout all the centuries. Alongside, high annual temperatures (+9 °C and higher) have been observed more often. While in the last century such temperatures were recorded once per 5–10 years, in the first decade of this century, annual temperature above +9 °C is recorded every second year. Short-term fluctuations (5–10 years) of annual precipitation amounts have been characteristic of the whole period since the 19th century. The interpretation of local climatic differences involves further devolopment of accurate interpolation techniques and downscaling, especially for the construction of precipitation field given lack of high-mountain weather stations in the earlier centuries. The latter corresponds to the future studies of the author.

The article analyzes the specific of the fantastic in the works of Salman Rushdie, a British writer of Indian origin. The difference of fantasy in his novels Midnight‘s Children and Shame is revealed by a comparative analysis. The principles of comparative, structural typological, socio-cultural, and mythopoetic analyses are used in the work. The article specifies the definition of magic realism as it is applied to a wide range of literary phenomena. The similarity of cultural and historical conditions in the development of India and the countries of Latin America in the 20th century allows comparing the literary techniques of Rushdie and of Marquez, who Rushdie was influenced by. The research shows that, in Midnight‘s Children, the main way to create its artistic world is mythological fantasy. The presence of mythological and folk images is characteristic of this type of the fantastic. Frequent uses of metaphorisation to represent the reality as a special principle of organizing the literary world is typical for it as well. The article justifies that metaphor in Rushdie’s novel looks like mythological identity. Mythopoetic techniques are actively used in the “Indian” novel Midnight‘s Children to reveal the historical reality, the inner world of the characters, their personal development, and the development of the new independent India. In the research, the reality of the novel is described as marvelous, where fantasy exits in the routine, and this brings Midnight‘s Children close to magic realism. The analysis proves that myth disappears in the novel Shame and the fantastic becomes more grotesque and absurd. Rushdie, choosing an allegorical way of literary synthesis, depicts a phantasmagoric, not marvelous, reality. In the “Pakistan” novel, hyperbolization and grotesque become the main techniques of fantasy that help to reveal satirically social and moral vices. In Pakistan, violations of fundamentals of natural life, rejection of its historical past, harsh moral laws, and absence of liberty lead to the deformation of personality and destructive social life. Fantasy in this novel is shown as grotesque exaggeration, distortion of normal proportions, absurd and consternation. The article concludes that the significant difference between the literary worlds of these two novels is the nature of fantasy, which is an inherent part of their realities. The specification of the novels’ fantastic is based on the different cultural and historic data of the depicted events.

Modern Islamic discourse is a field which studies Islam and its interaction with modernity from 18th century up to the mid of 20th CE. In doing so, textual analysis of religious texts is essential and includes employment of suitable methodologies of interpretation. Hermeneutics and semantic analysis are one of those important methodologies and are selected because of their role in determining vast writings in the subject. This paper attempts to do a comparative textual analysis in modern Islamic discourse by comparing and contrasting between the two major methodologies. Existing literature in the subject includes those of Fazlur Rahman (1919-1988), Mohamed Arkoun (1928-2010), Nasr Abu Zayd (1943-2010), Hassan Hanafi (1935-2021), Toshihiko Izutsu (1914-1993) and Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas (1931- ). From the review of the works as well as recent articles related to the subject, we can conclude that hermeneutics is more widely employed by key figures in modern Islamic discourse especially related to sociological ideas and historical approaches. However, semantic analysis is more compatible and better to be employed in Islamic discourse because of Quranic Arabic and conceptual factors in the worldview of Islam.