Abstract
Recycled wastewater is widely used owing to the potential shortage of water resources for drinking purposes, recreational activities, and irrigation. However, gut microbiomes of both human beings and animals negatively affect this water quality. Wastewater contamination is continuously monitored, using fecal contamination indicators or microbial source tracking approaches, to oppose arising enteric infections. Viral gastroenteritis is considered a principal manifestation of waterborne pathogenic virome-mediated infections, which are mainly transmitted via the fecal-oral route. Furthermore, acquired enteric viromes are the common cause of infantile acute diarrhea. Moreover, public exposure to wastewater via wastewater discharge or treated wastewater reuse has led to a significant surge of public health concerns. In this review, we discussed the etiology of waterborne enteric viromes, notably gastrointestinal virus infections, and public exposure to municipal wastewater. Conclusively, the early human virome is affected mainly by birth mode, dietary behavior, and maternal health, and could provide a signature of disease incidence, however, more virome diversification is acquired in adulthood. A multi-phase treatment approach offered an effective means for the elimination of wastewater reuse mediated public risks. The insights highlighted in this paper offer essential information for defining probable etiologies and assessing risks related to exposure to discharged or reused wastewater.
Highlights
Several enteric viruses could transfer to infants, and even children, via maternal transmission, through direct exposure, or through the use of contaminated water, such as hepatitis E virus (HEV) and hepatitis A
The high persistence of enteric viruses in various water environments enabled their detection in almost all water sources with a significantly higher frequency
Detection frequency of enteric viruses could vary according to the virus type, geographical location, water source, and the assigned period for sampling, irrelevant to virus concentration
Summary
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Adenovirus, rotavirus, norovirus, hepatitis A virus, and astrovirus represent the most commonly acquired enteric viruses and contribute to virome shaping in its early phases [6,9,10,11,12] These viruses are of high persistence in various water environments. Wastewater reuse was proposed mainly because of the shortage of water supplies [27,28] This demanded technical solutions for reuse of treated water for both non-potable uses, such as irrigation, with reported limitations (e.g., alterations of soil physicochemical parameters, microbiota [29], soil fertility, and subsequent productivity [21] and soil pH [29]) to be considered and de facto wastewater reuse associated with raised concerns (e.g., increased drinking water risks in case of wastewater effluent in source water [30]). The current review highlighted the etiology of enteric viromes in various water environments and the associated concerns related to public exposure to municipal wastewater via wastewater discharge or treated water reuse
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