Abstract
Mathematics is associated with anxiety for many students; an emotion linked to lower well-being and poorer learning outcomes. While findings typically show females to report higher trait math anxiety than males, no gender differences have to date been found in state (i.e., momentary) math anxiety. The present diary study aimed to replicate previous findings in investigating whether levels of academic self-concept was related to this discrepancy in trait vs. state anxiety measures. Additionally, mathematics-related gender stereotype endorsement (mathematics is a male domain) was investigated as an additional predictor of the trait-state discrepancy. The sample included 755 German 9th and 10th graders who completed self-report measures of trait math anxiety, math self-concept, and gender stereotype endorsement, in addition to state measures of anxiety after math classes by use of a standardized diary for 2–3 weeks (Nwithin = 6207). As expected, females reported higher trait math anxiety but no gender differences were found for state math anxiety. Also in line with our assumptions, multilevel analyses showed the discrepancy between trait and state anxiety to be negatively related to students' self-concept (i.e., a lower discrepancy for students with higher self-concepts). Furthermore, gender stereotype endorsement differentially predicted the trait-state discrepancy: When controlling for self-concept in mathematics, females who endorsed the gender stereotype of math being a male domain more strongly overestimated their trait math anxiety as compared to their state anxiety whereas this effect was not significant for males. The present findings suggest that gender stereotype endorsement plays an important role in explaining gender differences in math anxiety above and beyond academic self-concept. Implications for future research and educational practice are discussed.
Highlights
Mathematics is a domain of high importance, given the need for basic mathematical competencies in many degree programs and professional careers, making the frequent reports of math anxiety by students a cause for concern (Goetz et al, 2004, 2014)
To examine our research questions (Hypothesis 1), mean-level differences were evaluated in the first step, showing gender differences in mathematics anxiety for trait anxiety (Cohen’s d = −0.12) but not for state anxiety measures
This study examined additional variables that were expected to contribute to the discrepancy between students’ perceptions of trait math anxiety and their state math anxiety experiences in evaluating the effects of both students’ self-concept and endorsement of a math-related gender stereotype as moderators of the trait-state discrepancy
Summary
Mathematics is a domain of high importance, given the need for basic mathematical competencies in many degree programs and professional careers, making the frequent reports of math anxiety by students a cause for concern (Goetz et al, 2004, 2014). Meta-analyses consistently show female students to report higher levels of mathematics anxiety (e.g., Else-Quest et al, 2010), with studies showing female students typically report lower self-concepts in mathematics relative to male students (Hyde et al, 1990; Goetz et al, 2008, 2013) These gender differences are, in direct contrast to studies showing gender differences in mathematics performance to be notably small or non-existent (Hyde et al, 2008; Else-Quest et al, 2010), and instead appear to reflect long-held stereotypes that female students are less capable in this domain relative to their male counterparts (Steffens et al, 2010; Steffens and Jelenec, 2011). This troubling persistence of gender stereotypes and females’ negative attitudes toward mathematics is further assumed to contribute to the underrepresentation of females in many STEM domains in which mathematical competencies are a prerequisite (Watt, 2006; Halpern et al, 2007)
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