From Cold War to Cold Brew: Crop Replacement Strategies, Bean Logistics, and Ethnicized Coffee Commerce in Northern Thailand

Research Article| October 01 1973 The Meo Hill Tribe Problem in North Thailand Thomas A. Marks Thomas A. Marks Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Far Eastern Survey (1944) 13 (10): 929–944. https://doi.org/10.2307/2643003 Views Icon Views Article contents Figures & tables Video Audio Supplementary Data Peer Review Share Icon Share Twitter LinkedIn Tools Icon Tools Get Permissions Cite Icon Cite Search Site Citation Thomas A. Marks; The Meo Hill Tribe Problem in North Thailand. Far Eastern Survey 17 May 1944; 13 (10): 929–944. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/2643003 Download citation file: Ris (Zotero) Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest filter your search All ContentAsian Survey Search This content is only available via PDF. Copyright 1973 Regents of the University of California Article PDF first page preview Close Modal You do not currently have access to this content.

BackgroundHand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD) is a major communicable disease in children ≤6 years old, particularly in several countries in the Asia-Pacific Region, including Thailand. HFMD impacts public health and the economy, especially in northern Thailand.MethodsA prospective cohort study was conducted to estimate the incidence rate and to identify the serotype and clinical features of HFMD among children in northern Thailand. A validated questionnaire and throat swab were used for data collection. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to detect human enterovirus and identify its serotypes. Participants were recruited from 14 hospitals in two provinces in northern Thailand, specifically, Chiang Rai and Pha Yao Province, between January 1, 2016, and December 31, 2016. Chi-square or Fisher’s exact test was used to detect the associations of signs and symptoms with HFMD serotype. Logistic regression was used to detect the associations of variables with a positive enterovirus at alpha = 0.05.ResultIn total, 612 children aged ≤6 years from Chiang Rai and Pha Yao Province who were diagnosed with HFMD by a throat swab were recruited for the analysis. Approximately half of the cohort was male (57.2%), 57.5% was aged < 2 years, and 57.5% lived in rural areas. The incidence rate was 279.72/100,000 person-years in Chiang Rai Province and 321.24 per 100,000 person-years in Pha Yao Province. Additionally, 42.5% of children were positive for human enterovirus; among these children, 56.1% were positive for enterovirus-A (EV-A), 17.7% were positive for coxsackievirus (CV), and 26.2% were positive for other human RNA enteroviruses. During the study period, 21 distinct outbreaks of HFMD were recognized. Four to five patients (total 92 patients) were selected from each outbreak for identifying its serotype; enterovirus-A71 (EV-A71) was detected in 34.8% of HFMD cases, coxsackievirus-A16 (CV-A16) in 26.1%, coxsackivirus-A6 (CV-A6) in 15.2%, coxsackievirus-A10 (CV-A10) in 10.9%, coxsackievirus-A4 (CV-A4) in 2.2%, coxsackievirus-B2 (CV-B2) in 2.2%, human rhinovirus in 2.2%, and unknown serotype in 6.4%. Multivariable analysis demonstrated that a history of breastfeeding for ≤6 months was associated with a higher chance of enterovirus infection than a history of breastfeeding > 6 months, and children who had mother who worked as farmers, daily wage employees, and unprofessional skilled jobs had a greater chance of enterovirus infection than those who had unemployed mothers. Coxsackievirus-infected children had a higher rate of rashes on the buttocks, knee, and elbow and fever but a lower rate of lethargy and malaise than EV-A71-infected children.ConclusionsEV-A71 is a major cause of HFMD in children < 6 years old in northern Thailand, but rash, fever, and mouth ulcers are mostly found in participants with coxsackievirus infection. Breastfeeding should be promoted during early childhood for at least 6 months to prevent HFMD particularly those mother who are working in unprofessional skill jobs.

Cross-sectional research aimed to assess the prevalence and identifying the association between sodium intake, sleep quality and the Quality of Life (QoL) among hill tribes in Chiang Rai Province. Stratified Random Sampling was used to recruit 2,831 participants from eight hill tribes group. The prevalence of sodium intake more than 2,000 mg/day found that 90.67%. The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) reported that half of them (50.6%) had poor sleep quality and most of them had a medium level of quality of life 72.5% (2,054 persons). The univariate analysis found that four factors were significantly associated with sodium intake: Adding sauce, adding seasoning powder, PSQI, QOL respectively. The multiple logistic regression analysis revealed the only low quality of life can predict sodium consumption. This research shows that they should have to receive intervention to reduce sodium intake and emphasize hill tribe population of the low quality of life to find health care alternatives.

Objective: Falls remain a cause of disability in the elderly. The present study was carried out to estimate the prevalence of falls among the hill tribe elderly population in Northern Thailand and identify its associated factors.Material and Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted in participants from 61 hill tribe villages in Chiang Rai province, Thailand aged more than 60 years. A simple random method was used to select the participants. A questionnaire was developed and validated for data collection. Timed-up and go test (TUGT) was used to assess the dynamic balance and risk of falls in the participants. Logistic regression was used to evaluate the associations between the study variables (p-value&lt;0.05).Results: One hundred eighty-two participants were recruited into the study with a mean age of 69.54 years (S.D.=7.02). 59.9 % were women. It was found that 17.6% of elderly who fell in the previous 6 months and 28.0% of elderly who risks of falls as assessed by the TUGT. The multiple logistic regression model showed that tribe (adjusted odds ratio (aOR)=4.40, 95 confidence interval (CI)%=1.88 to 22.02), dizziness (aOR=3.40, 95 CI%=1.70 to 16.70), history of fall in the last 6 months (aOR=2.42, 95 CI%=1.06 to 8.64), location of falls (aOR=1.37, 95 CI%=1.02 to 18.22), and the 15-item geriatric depression scale (GDS-15) (aOR=12.91, 95 CI%=1.07 to 84.85) were the associated risk factors for having a serious fall for hill tribe elderly.Conclusion: This study provides important determining factors associated with elderly falls, which can assist in developing and implementing an appropriate fall prevention program through environmental adjustments for the elderly.

ABSTRACTThis analytical cross-sectional study aimed to examine the associations between setting and food consumption and accessibility in two districts of Chiang Rai province, northern Thailand. 128 women (65 in hill tribe setting and 63 in urban setting) were surveyed using an interviewer-administered questionnaire. Traditional and mobile markets were well utilized in both settings, in spite of the growth of multinational retailers. Consumption of ready-to-eat food and home-grown/reared or wild foods was associated with socioeconomic status. Fewer hill tribe women had eaten ready-to-eat food, although some reported fairly regular consumption. Consumption of home-grown/reared or wild foods was more evident in the hill tribe group, showing their continued utilization of traditional food resources.

Data were collected as part of a cross-sectional study. The objectives were to compare dietary intakes of iron and enhancers and inhibitors of non-heme iron absorption in hill tribe and urban women of Chiang Rai province, northern Thailand, and compare iron- and vitamin C- containing foods sold in markets in both settings. Dietary data were collected using three 24- hour recalls from 128 women aged 19–50 years (hill tribe: n = 65; urban n = 63), and proportions of low-, medium- and high-iron/vitamin C containing foods were surveyed in local markets. Hill tribe women consumed less iron, animal protein, vitamin C and calcium, but market availability of iron/vitamin C foods was similar. Future interventions should focus on food choice modification, to improve intakes of iron and foods that enhance its absorption, especially among hill tribe women.

Background A retrospective cohort study was conducted to determine the situation, trend, and possible risk factors of TB infection, and factors related to the health status among the HIV/AIDS hill tribe in northern Thailand. Methods A systematic data-reviewing approach was used to identify the information from the rosters of ARV clinics, OPD cards, and laboratory reports from 16 hospitals in Chiang Rai Province, Thailand. The data were collected from the first reported HIV/AIDS case of the hill tribe to the end of 2010. A chi-square test and logistic regression models were used to identify associations at the significance level of alpha = 0.05. Results A total of 3,130 cases were included in the study. The majority of patients were Akha (46.0%) followed by Lahu (19.7%), 54.6% were males, 44.6% were 26–35 years old, and 25.2% were 36–45 years old. The peak period of HIV/AIDS infection among the hill tribes was from 2001–2005, during which occurred in 43.9% of all cases, followed by 33.7% from 2006–2010. The recorded occupations were 44.8% agricultural and 32.2% traders. The major risk factor of HIV infection was sexual intercourse (91.7%); 33.3% were still alive at the date of data collection, 30.7% were diagnosed with pulmonary TB, 76.0% did not receive ARV and 9.1% had been checked for CD4 level. The Lisu hill tribe HIV/AIDS individuals had a greater risk of TB infection than did Lahu individuals (OR adj = 1.50, 95% CI = 1.04–2.16). Females had a greater risk of TB infection than did males (OR adj = 1.22, 95% CI = 1.01–1.49); being classified as symptomatic HIV group was a protective factor of TB with OR adj = 0.18 (95% CI = 0.11–0.29); and not having received the ARV was also a protective factor with OR adj = 0.06 (95% CI = 0.05–0.08). The patients who had been diagnosed with HIV infection during 2001–2005 and 2006–2010 had a greater risk of TB infection than did those who were diagnosed from 1990–1995, with OR adj = 21.39 (6.59–69.42) and 13.70 (4.19–44.73), respectively. Conclusions Thailand needs to create a TB and HIV/AIDS surveillance system for hill tribe populations to determine the situation and trend and to develop an appropriate model for providing care at the earlier stage of HIV/AIDS infection to prevent later TB infection.

Background: Current data on the prevalence of hemoglobinopathies among Lahu in northern Thailand are limited. Objective: To investigate the prevalence of thalassemia carriers among Lahu hill tribe people in Chiang Rai Province, Thailand. Materials and Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional study in 2 phases. The first retrospectively analyzed data from antenatal clinics attended by Lahu women between January 2011 and June 2012. The second phase was prospective and included the husbands of Lahu women. In the second phase, 116 Lahu adults were administered a questionnaire and blood tests for osmotic fragility (OFT) and dichlorophenol indophenol precipitation (DCIP). The hemoglobin (Hb) type of those positive for either or both tests was identified by HPLC and PCR. Results: Data from 358 Lahu women in the first phase showed a mean age of 23.2 y (range 13–46 y, SD 6.83), 68.5% were primigravida. Fifty-eight had abnormal mean corpuscular volume (MCV), 87 positive OFT, 18 positive DCIP test, and 3.0% positive results in both tests. Eight of 83 participating husbands had abnormal MCV, 8 positive OFT and 2 positive DCIP test. In the second phase, 52.2% of 116 participants were women, mean age of 33.7 y (range 18–68 y, SD 11.2), 38 positive OFT, 10 positive DCIP test, and 3.7% positive results in both tests. Hb typing showed 5 participants with HbE, 1 ?-thalassemic, 1 HbE homozygous, and no ?-thalassemia-1 (SEA) was identified. Conclusion: Provision of a thalassemia screening in health care settings in remote areas of Thailand is an ongoing need. Keywords: Hill tribe, Lahu, pregnant women, prevalence, thalassemia carrier

Hypertension (HT) is a serious problem in the adult population, particularly among individuals who are living in poor economic conditions and have a low education level. This study aimed to determine the associations between lifestyle and HT among adult hill tribe populations in Thailand. A cross-sectional study was conducted to gather information on several risk behaviors related to HT among the hill tribe population aged 30 years and older by using a validated questionnaire and 5 mL blood specimens. The study was conducted in 30 selected hill tribe villages in Chiang Rai Province, Northern Thailand. Logistic regression was used to detect the associations. A total of 2552 participants participated in the project; 65.9% were female, 72.4% were aged 40-69 years, and 54.2% were Buddhist. The overall prevalence of HT was 33.7%. After controlling for all potential confounding variables, two variables were found to be associated with HT: participants who used moderate (AOR=1.57; 95% CI=1.03-3.76) and high amounts (AOR=1.59; 95% CI=1.05-3.78) of oil for cooking had greater odds of having HT than those who used small amounts. Those who had low (AOR=1.45; 95% CI=1.13-1.88), moderate (AOR=2.68; 95% CI=1.80-8.78), and high (AOR=1.61; 95% CI=1.36-7.26) levels of depression had greater odds of having HT than those who were not depressed. Effective public health programs that focus on reducing the use of daily oil for cooking and decreasing the prevalence of depression in hill tribe people are urgently needed.

Tuberculosis (TB) remains a serious public-health problem worldwide. The successful tuberculosis treatment was in low rate among the hill tribes in Thailand. This study aimed to determine factors associated with the unsuccessful tuberculosis treatment among the hill tribe TB patients in northern Thailand. A retrospective cohort study was conducted using secondary data from the national TB reporting system. Data of newly registered hill tribe patients with TB receiving treatment were obtained from 18 government hospitals in Chiang Rai province, during 2014-2017. TB treatment outcomes and factors associated with unsuccessful were determined. A total of 770 hill tribe patients with TB registered during the study period. The majority were males aged 25-64 years. About 80% of the patients lived in rural areas and 53.9% worked in agriculture. The overall TB treatment success rate was 80.4%. Two factors were associated with unsuccessful TB treatment: ages 25-44 and ages 45-64 (aOR 3.14 (1.03-9.55) and 3.02 (1.01-9.03), respectively) and receiving antiretroviral drugs (proxy of HIV infection) (aOR 2.30 (1.02-5.15)). Although the TB treatment success rate among hill tribe patients did not reach the national goal, it was still higher than that of other Thai TB patients in the area. In Thailand, hill tribe people can access health services free-of-charge under the national health insurance. This could influence the successful treatment. However, some barriers need to be considered, such as the high default rate and high death rate among those with HIV coinfection.

Early sexual initiation before the age of 15 years, prior to full physical and mental maturity, can lead to several problems, including sexually transmitted diseases. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of and determine the factors associated with early sexual initiation among hill tribe youths in Thailand. A cross-sectional study was conducted to gather information using a validated questionnaire from hill tribe youths aged 15-24 years living in 30 selected hill tribe villages in Chiang Rai Province, Thailand. Data were obtained using self-reports in a private and confidential room. Chi-square tests and logistic regression were used to detect associations between variables at a significance level of α=0.05. A total of 1,310 hill tribe youths participated in the study: 60.8% were females, 59.0% were aged 15-17 years, 34.0% were Akha, and 90.1% had no income. Substance use was reported as follows: 22.2% used alcohol, 14.3% smoked, and 2.6% used methamphetamine. A large proportion (79.8%) had poor knowledge of safe sex, and 33.5% had poor attitudes toward early sexual behaviors and safe sex. One-fourth (24.1%) had sexual experience. Of these, 42.0% were males, and 53.0% were female. Among those who had sexual experience, 9.8% had their first sexual initiation before 15 years. Of these, 81.1% were males, and 18.9% were females. The overall age at first sexual initiation was 16.7 years. The minimum age at first sexual initiation was 12 years for males and 13 years for females. Sex and age, including smoking, amphetamine, and heroin use behaviors, were associated with early sexual initiation in the univariate model. In the multivariable model, sex and age remainedassociated with early sexual initiation. Males were 7.30 times (95% CI = 2.06-25.83) more likely to have experienced early sexual initiation than females were. Those aged 15-17 years were 8.31 times (95% CI = 1.68-41.07) more likely to have experienced early sexual initiation than those aged 21-24 years were. A large proportion of hill tribe youths have sexual experience, and one-tenth have experienced early sexual initiation before the age of 15 years. Specific knowledge on sexual education programs should be integrated into the high school study curriculum to protect early sexual initiation behaviors and safe sex, particularly for females. Family- and community-based interventions should also be strongly recommended for the implementation of sexual education training. The curriculum should focus on the impact of substance use and potentially early sexual initiation.

BackgroundType 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and hypertension (HT) are major noncommunicable health problems in both developing and developed countries, including Thailand. Each year, a large amount of money is budgeted for treatment and care. Hill tribe people are a marginalized population in Thailand, and members of its elderly population are vulnerable to health problems due to language barriers, lifestyles, and daily dietary intake.MethodsAn analytic cross-sectional study was conducted to estimate the prevalence of T2DM and HT and to assess the factors associated with T2DM and HT. The study populations were hill tribe elderly adults aged ≥ 60 years living in Chiang Rai Province, Thailand. A simple random method was used to select the targeted hill tribe villages and participants into the study. A validated questionnaire, physical examination form, and 5-mL blood specimen were used as research instruments. Fasting plasma glucose and blood pressure were examined and used as outcome measurements. Chi-square tests and logistic regression were used for detecting the associations between variables at the significance level alpha=0.05.ResultsIn total, 793 participants participated in the study; 49.6% were male, and 51.7% were aged 60-69 years. A total of 71.5% were Buddhist, 93.8% were uneducated, 62.9% were unemployed, and 89 % earned an income of < 5,000 baht/month. The overall prevalence of T2DM and HT was 16.8% and 45.5%, respectively. Approximately 9.0% individuals had comorbidity of T2DM and HT. Members of the Lahu, Yao, Karen, and Lisu tribes had a greater odds of developing T2DM than did those of the Akha tribe. Being overweight, having a parental history of T2DM, and having high cholesterol were associated with T2DM development. In contrast, those who engaged in highly physical activities and exercise had lower odds of developing T2DM than did those who did not. Regarding HT, being female, having a high dietary salt intake, being overweight, and having a parental history of HT were associated with HT development among the hill tribe elderly populations.ConclusionsThe prevalence of T2DH and HT among the hill tribe elderly populations is higher than that among the general Thai population. Public health interventions should focus on encouraging physical activity and reducing personal weight, dietary salt intake, and greasy food consumption among the hill tribe elderly.

In this research, we elucidated the species composition of Culicoides biting midges, infection prevalence, and genetic diversity of Leishmania parasites circulating in the affected community in Chiang Rai Province, being the most endemic area in Northern Thailand. A total of 146 parous and gravid females, belonging to at least twelve Culicoides species in five subgenera and one species group, were trapped from three collection sites with an overall Leishmania prevalence of 26.7% (39/146). Leishmania was detected, using ITS1-PCR, in C. mahasarakamense (15), C. guttifer (11), C. (Trithecoides) spp. (8), C. jacobsoni (2), C. oxystoma (2), and C. orientalis (1). The evidence of Leishmania infection in these last five species represents new records in Northern Thailand. Given a high infection rate in cavernicolous specimens, this indicates an increased risk of parasite exposure when visiting the cave. Using the nanopore amplicon sequencing, L. martiniquensis was ubiquitously identified in all positives, and more than half of these were also co-infected with L. orientalis. The genetic diversity analysis revealed 13 and 17 unique haplotypes for L. martiniquensis and L. orientalis, respectively. Higher haplotype diversity and relatively low nucleotide diversity were observed in both parasite populations, suggesting recent population divergence. Neutrality tests (Tajima's D and Fu and Li's D) showed to be significantly negative, indicating rapid population growth or a selective sweep. Moreover, dominant haplotypes of both Leishmania species were 100% identical to those in all leishmaniasis patients previously reported from Northern Thailand, strongly supporting the imperative role of Culicoides spp. in disease transmission. Essentially, this research provides the first entomological surveillance data representing the sympatric existence, transmission dynamics, and genetic complexity of two autochthonous Leishmania (Mundinia) parasites in several Culicoides species in the endemic area of Northern Thailand. This would contribute to a more complete understanding of the epidemiology of vector infection and facilitate the development of vector control programs to effectively reduce the transmission of this neglected tropical disease in endemic areas of Northern Thailand.

Soil macrofauna diversity (nb ind. TSBF-1) in 4 sites (maize, rice + young rubber trees, rubber tree plantation close to the trees or in the interrow) in Huai Lang, Chiang Rai province, Northern Thailand. This study was realized during a research project of Sorbonne University and Institut de Recheche pour le Developpement and was supported by the ANR HeveAdapt project, grant ANR-14-CE03-0012-04, of the French Agence Nationale de la Recherche. Fieldwork was realized with the cooperation of the Huai Lang Royal Project Center and the Land Development Department of Thailand.

DOI:10.17014/ijog.8.3.371-383It has been known that northern Thailand is an active tectonic region in Southeast Asia. Some earthquakes with low to medium magnitudes had occurred in northern Thailand. The Mw6.1 Mae Lao Earthquake occurred on May 5th, 2014 in Chiang Rai Province. The earthquake also resulted in the unique phenomenon of ground failure, which was known as liquefaction. Learning from the event, the liquefaction potential based on seismic ground response analysis was performed. Several site investigations including standard penetration test and seismic down-hole test in Chiang Rai Province were carried out. The next generation attenuation model was conducted to generate the ground motion for nonlinear seismic response analysis. The peak ground acceleration at the ground surface from seismic ground response analysis was used to analyze the empirical analysis of liquefaction potential. The results show that liquefaction could occur at the investigated locations during the earthquake. The results also confirm the liquefaction evidence found in Chiang Rai Province during the Mw 6.1 Mae Lao Earthquake. This research can help the people to consider the earthquake impacts to northern Thailand.