Food, Fuel, and Climate Change

With increasing attention on sustainable development, the environmental and social relevance of palm oil production are now important trade issues. The life cycle assessment (LCA) study of Malaysian oil palm products from mineral soils including palm biodiesel was aimed to provide baseline information on the environmental performance of the industry for drawing up policies pertaining to the sustainable production. The share of greenhouse gas (GHG) contribution by the various subsystems in the oil palm supply chain is considered here. The life cycle inventory data for the study were collected based on subsystems, i.e., gate-to-gate. The subsystems include activities in oil palm nurseries and plantations, palm oil mills, refineries, biodiesel plants and the use of biodiesel in diesel engine vehicles. Two scenarios were considered: extraction of crude palm oil (CPO) in a mill without and with a system for trapping biogas from palm oil mill effluent (POME). Inventory data were collected through questionnaires. On-site visits were carried out for data verification. Background data for resource exploitation and production of input materials were obtained through available databases and literature. Foreground data for all subsystems were site-specific data from nurseries, plantations, palm oil mills and refineries and biodiesel plants in Malaysia. Using a yield of 20.7 t oil palm fresh fruit bunches (FFB)/ha, the results showed that the production of 1 t of FFB produced 119 kg CO2 eq. The production of 1 t of CPO in a mill without and with biogas capture emitted 971 and 506 kg CO2 eq, respectively. For the production of 1 t of refined palm oil in a refinery which sourced the CPO from a mill without biogas capture and with biogas capture, the GHG emitted was 1,113 kg and 626 kg CO2 eq, respectively. For palm biodiesel, 33.19 and 21.20 g CO2 eq were emitted per MJ of biodiesel produced from palm oil sourced from a mill without and with biogas capture, respectively. GHG contribution by the nursery subsystem was found to be minimal. In the plantation subsystem, the major sources of GHG were from nitrogen fertilizers, transport and traction energy. For the mill, biogas from POME was the major contributor if biogas was not trapped. Excluding contribution from upstream activities, boiler fuel and transport were the major sources of GHG in the refinery subsystem. In the biodiesel subsystem, activities for production of refined palm oil and methanol use were the most significant contributors.

Various policies are undertaken to support the increase of production and export volume of palm oil products. This study aims to analyze the competitiveness and impact of government policies on palm oil commodities in West Pasaman Regency. The research was conducted by survey method on 30 samples taken intentionally through multistage purposive sampling. The data is analyzed using Policy Analysis Matrix and sensitivity analysis. The results showed that the commodity of palm oil in Pasaman Barat Regency is competitive based on competitive advantage and comparative advantage both in the form of Fresh Fruit Bunches (FFB) and Crude Palm Oil (CPO). This is evidenced by the value of Privat Cost Ratio on FFB of 0.72 and CPO of 0,86; Domestic Resource Cost Ratio on FFB of 0.66 and CPO of 0,96; the value of private profit on FFB of 87 million rupiah and CPO of 35 billion rupiah; and social profit on FFB of 122 million rupiah and CPO of 11 billion rupiah. The impact of government policy indicated that government policies are disincentive to output, protective to tradable input, and indicated a subsidy to domestic factors. This is showed by Nominal Protection Coefficient Output on FFB of 0.82 and CPO of 0.89; Nominal Protection Coefficient Input on FFB of 0.50 and CPO of 1.00; Effective Protection Coefficient on FFB of 0.93 and CPO of 0.80; Protection Coefficient on FFB of 0.71 and CPO of 3.21; and Subsidy Ratio to Produce on FFB of -0.09 and CPO of 0.09.

The supply of palm oil in East Kalimantan Province does not only come from state-owned and private plantations but also smallholders. The palm oil value chain analysis was conducted in three districts in several palm oil companies and their suppliers. CPO and PKO production data are taken through secondary data and have been processed. The company has a core business in the field of processing crude palm oil (CPO) derived from fresh fruit bunches (FFB) owned by its plantations and from farmer groups around the oil palm plantation and oil palm processing (PKO) areas. The capacity of crude oil processing plants (CPO) varies from the lowest, 30 tons FFB/hour to 90 tons FFB/hour. The purpose of this study was to analyze the CPO supply value chain of several companies in East Kalimantan Province. Observational data are taken directly in the field and secondary data. The CPO generated by Oil Palm Mill is used for two of its activities: vegetable oil, and B. non-vegetable oil. Vegetable oil is used for cooking oil and margarine. However, non-vegetable oils are used in biodiesel (for renewable energy) and soaps, and shampoos. Kernel aims for his two activities: The use of cosmetics, perfumes, or drugs.

Background: Indonesia is still an energy importer, especially in the form of crude oil and fuel products to meet the needs of its industrial sector. The reduced production of fossil energy, especially oil, as well as the global commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, has prompted the Indonesian government to continue to support the role of new and renewable energy. The production of palm oil-based biodiesel is faced with a number of environmental problems, which may occur from the release of emissions during the production of FFB (Fresh Fruit Bunches), CPO (Crude Palm Oil), and biodiesel. Therefore, the purpose of this research is to compile an LCI (Life Cycle Inventory) covering the production of FFB, CPO, and biodiesel; analyze the environmental impact of the CPO bodysel production process which includes CO2 (eq) emissions, acidification and eutrophication; and develop a life cycle concept for biodiesel production from palm oil as a renewable energy. Methods: The method used in this study is a combination of quantitative LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) and AHP (Analytical Hierarchy Process) and qualitative. Findings: The results of this study are LCI in 1 ton of biodiesel consisting of NPK fertilizer of 141.1 Kg; herbicide (0.25 Kg); water (1578 m3), diesel oil (25 Kg); fresh fruit bunches of 5.67 tons; electricity of 33.8 kWh, POME (Palm Oil Mill Effluent) (3,47 m3), CPO needed for biodiesel conversion of 1.17 tons; methanol (0.41 tons), and 0.01 tons of Sodium Hydroxide. The total CO2 emission (eq) of biodiesel production from palm oil is 1489 Kg CO2 (eq), eutrophication is 1.12 Kg PO43- (eq) and acidification is 3.06 Kg SO2 (eq). With the largest contribution of CO2 (eq) emissions in CPO production and the contribution of eutrophication and acidification in oil palm plantations or FFB production (Fresh Fruit Bunches). Environmental hotspot of LCA, CO2 (eq) emissions from palm oil biodiesel production show that 53% mainly comes from POME (Palm Oil Mill Effluent) waste, other contributors are NPK fertilizers (23%), methanol (18%), and diesel oil (7%). Hotspot eutrophication showed that 61% mainly came from NPK fertilizer, methanol (20%), diesel oil (11%), and POME waste (8%). Hotspot acidification showed that 48% mainly came from NPK fertilizers, methanol (28%), POME waste (13%), and diesel oil (11%). Conclusion: The concept of a biodiesel production life cycle can be applied with the best alternative utilization of POME waste with a priority weighting of 0.357 and a CO2(eq) emission criterion of 0.494. From the optimization of the life cycle of biodiesel production with the use of POME, the potential for emission reduction is 667.2 Kg CO2 (eq). Novelty/Originality of this Study: This study's novel application of LCA evaluates the environmental impacts of biodiesel production from palm oil in Indonesia, identifying critical hotspots in CO2 emissions, eutrophication, and acidification. Additionally, it proposes an innovative optimization approach by utilizing POME to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions, highlighting a viable path for enhancing the sustainability of biodiesel production.

The stakeholders in the palm oil supply chain (POSC) are the smallholder farmers who produce fresh fruit bunch (FFB), the traders, CPO factory who produces CPO from FFB, refinery who transformed CPO into frying oil, the distributors/retailers, and the consumers. The palm oil tree regularly produces FFB from its third until 24th year of life.The output of the farmers is measured in its weight (tonnes), so are the outputs of the trader, the CPO factory, the refinery, and the distributors/retailers. However the input to the farmer must be measured differently because the main raw materials are bought in the form of seedling or young palm-oil tree, to be planted on the field and regularly bear FFB to be later sold in tons. The objective of this study is to build a calculation model to allocate the raw material prices of the seedling. Original Hayami method to calculate single company added value was modified to facilitate calculation of the added value of supply chain network of companies. The calculation is based on the crude palm oil (CPO) factory capacity of processing 30 tons of FFB per hour, calculated for a year. The life-cycle-cost approach was used to calculate the appropriate cost of the raw material. Using this approach the raw material cost is IDR 1,012/kg, and the the total POSC added-value is IDR 13,011 per kg of product. It is expected that the modified Hayami added value calculation method can be later applied to larger and more complex industries.

Accounting for potential GHG emissions from the palm oil production is essential to demonstrate partly how responsible palm oil production can be carried out. Results of the GHG emission calculation from certified RSPO members using the RSPO PalmGHG Calculator are collated and reported. The potential sources of GHG emission that result directly from production of palm oil are enumerated. The cumulative impact, which affects the final carbon balance in the production of crude palm oil (CPO), is quantified. The analysis helps to identify GHG emission hotspots so that mitigation plans can be developed and implemented. The aim is to minimise and reduce GHG emissions that result from production of palm oil. The emission from planting on peat, land conversion, and POME are the major sources of emission in CPO production. Peat is the most dominant contributing factor to GHG emission. Land conversion emission is dependent on the type of land cover which was converted to oil palm. Converting land cover with higher carbon stocks such as secondary forest to oil palm will cause higher GHG emission than converting land cover with lower carbon stocks such as shrubland. Emission from POME is significant and construction of methane capture can reduce the POME emission significantly. Sequestration from conservation areas and emission credit from export of biomass and electricity has a moderate positive impact on the GHG emission. Emission from existing certified RSPO plantations during the period of January 2015 to August 2017 is 3.33 tCO2e/tCPO for peat area and 0.94 tCO2e/tCPO for non-peat area. This is lower compared to average GHG emissions of the oil palm industry of 10. 6 tCO2e/tCPO for peat area and 1. 73 tCO2e/tCPO for non-peat area. Keywords: LCA, RSPO, PalmGHG, GHG emissions, palm oil.

The biodiesel biofuel conversion program requires more Crude Palm Oil (CPO) to produce environmentally friendly fuels. Fresh Fruit Bunches (FFB) from independent smallholders' oil palm lands are relied on to meet CPO needs. To ensure independent smallholders 'palm fruit is actually used in the biodiesel and green fuel program, it is necessary to carry out a digital transformation in the procurement of independent smallholders' FFB by building an integrated e-procurement system makes it easier for DPDPKS to monitor the procurement of FFB by cooperatives and the production of CPO by PKS as raw material for biodiesel. This study aims to analyze the business processes of independent smallholders' FFB procurement to design an integrated independent smallholder FFB e-procurement system, ensuring that CPO production for biodiesel comes from independent smallholder oil palm lands. E-procurement also integrates the FFB harvest schedule managed by the cooperative and the CPO production schedule created by the Palm Oil Mill (PKS). This e-procurement will facilitate the coordination of FFB procurement between PKS and cooperatives and between cooperatives and independent smallholders. This e-procurement is supported by cloud computing technology, allows realtime services to be accessed anytime and anywhere. All procurement activities are recorded in the cloud servicse so that the amount of FFB supply from independent farmers for biodiesel can be monitored as well as downstream biodiesel shipments can be monitored ensuring subsidies for biodiesel distribution are right on target.

Based on results from breeding trials, Topaz DxP Series 2 progenies have a genetic yield potential of 33.5 tonnes fresh fruit bunch (FFB) per hectare, 9.3 tonnes crude palm oil (CPO) per hectare and estimated mill oil extraction rate (OER) of 27. 8 per cent. However, actual performances in large scale commercial plantings can differ from trials due to variation in site characteristics (soil, topography, climate) and consistency in management inputs. This paper reports on the commercial performance of Topaz DxP Series 2 progenies planted over 11 032 hectares in six sites located over four provinces in Indonesia. In spite of/ow to moderate rainfall and annual soil moisture deficits in Site I (North Sumatera), high FFB (32.8 tonnes/ha) and CPO (8.2 tonnes/ha) yield was still achieved. Site 2 (North Sumatera) having significantly higher rainfall attained even better yields (34. 7 tonnes FFB/ha, 8. 7 tonnes CPO/ha) over its entire I 737 ha. Its smaller neighbouring sister estate (270 ha) recorded the highest yields (42.3 tonnes FFB/ha, I 0. 6 tonnes CPO/ha) as early as the fifth year of harvesting. At both sites, FFB yield more than 30 tonnes per hectare and CPO yield more than 7 tonnes per hectare had been consistently attained over the last 4 years. The good adaptability of Topaz DxP Series 2 to marginal soils was observed in an oil palm to oil palm replant (1,350 ha) on second generation deep peat (Site 3, North Sumatera). FFB yield more than 30 tonnes per hectare and CPO yield more than 7 tonnes per hectare were attained as early as 5-6 years after planting. Equally impressive yields of 35.1 tonnes FFB per hectare and 8. 7 tonnes CPO per hectare were recorded from Series 2 progenies planted over I 892 hectares on sandy loam to loamy sand textured soils in Riau province (Site 4). Slightly lower crop yields were recorded in Site 5 (Jambi) and Site 6 (Central Kalimantan) due to sub­optimal agricultural conditions at the early stages of development. Upon upgrading, FFB and CPO yields ranging from 29-32 tonnes per hectare and 7.2-7.4 tonnes per hectare respectively, have subsequently been attained Mill OERs of 25.0-25.5 per cent in three sites (I, 2, 6) have confirmed the good oil content in the Topaz Series 2 fruit bunches. The lower mill OERs (22. 8-24.9% recorded in Sites 4 and 5 were primarily due to the mills processing a mixed crop from Gen-I (48% and Gen-2 (52% plantings. Keywords: CPO, FFB, oil palm, Topaz.

Oil palm expansion among Indonesian smallholders - adoption, welfare implications and agronomic challenges

Indonesia is the world's largest producer of crude palm oil (CPO). At peak harvest conditions, frequent accumulation of fresh fruit bunches (FFB) due to abundant raw materials. Based on data from one palm oil mill in the province of North Sumatra, the percentage of FFB stays in the field overnight, which is 41% of the total FFB though, on the one hand FFB that has been harvested must be processed immediately because it can affect the quality of oil to be produced. Besides that, the factors of production and storage processes are also very influential on the quality of CPO. The imbalance in production planning shows that production planning is not yet optimal in the CPO supply chain so that a production optimization design is needed in the CPO supply chain. The genetic algorithm was chosen in the completion of the optimization model because of the complex characteristics of the CPO supply chain. The purpose of this research is to optimize the palm oil supply chain system to minimize production costs. This method shows that the optimum production yield for the third quarter of 2017 is 12,202,285 kg. With the proposed system an increase in the percentage of CPO production was obtained by 8.34% compared to the actual system.

Background: The level of free fatty acids (FFAs) is an important oil quality index that is consistently measured at mills and refineries to ensure that palm oil is within specification limits. FFAs can accumulate at any point throughout the process, for example, during fresh fruit bunch (FFB) harvesting or during the mill process before sterilisation. Another key contributor to FFA build-up is loose fruit (LF), which is collected following FFB harvesting and is commonly processed together with FFB into crude palm oil (CPO) at the mill. The aim of this study was to identify pivotal points of FFA formation during the process of crude palm oil production. Results: The present study shows that the highest FFA accumulation occurred during the conveying process at the mill before sterilisation due to significant fruit damage. The rapid formation of FFA occurred during the first 15 min of oil palm fruit bruising. A minimum temperature of 60 °C for one hour was needed to deactivate the lipase activity, which is responsible for FFA formation. Blending high-FFA CPO with standard CPO affected indices of palm oil quality, such as the deteriorated peroxide value (PV) and anisidine value (AV), and particularly worsened the bleachability index (DOBI). Conclusions: This study suggests that the conveyor system in the mill could be the prime area to focus on in terms of FFA reduction, along with minimising bruising events. In addition, loose fruits (LF) with high FFA content should be processed separately from FFB, and high-FFA CPO derived from LF should not be mixed with standard CPO.

Indonesia has been placed as the world's first producer of crude palm oil and crude palm oil. In producing crude palm oil (CPO) and palm kernel oil (PKO), the palm oil industry relies heavily on processing fresh fruit bunches (FFB) at palm oil mills (POM) and is traded internationally. However, this process also produces solid organic waste [ i.e. empty bunches (EFB)], which reach up to 25 %% of FFB. The analysis shows that the application of empty bunches as organic fertilizer has not been able to increase the amount of nutrients in palm oil leaves and increase palm oil production. Application of palm oil mill effluent which is able to increase the amount of nutrients in palm oil, especially nitrogen and phosphate, and a positive impact to increase the production of oil palm plantations, especially on productivity (tons / ha).

This research was conducted to compare the quality of Crude Palm Oil (CPO) A samples which were simply processed with CPO B and C obtained from the Adolina and Rambutan Palm Oil Mills (PKS) during storage of 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4 months. The CPO quality parameters analyzed were water content, free fatty acid content (ALB), peroxide value and fatty acid composition. The results obtained for a storage period of 4 months were that the water content of CPO A produced simply and CPO C from PKS Rambutan had a significantly different effect, while CPO B from PKS Adolina had no significantly different effect at the P≤0.05 level. ALB levels in CPO from PKS Adolina had a significantly different effect, while simple CPO and CPO from PKS Rambutan had no significantly different effect. Meanwhile, the peroxide numbers for the three CPO samples have significantly different effects. The storage time affects the fatty acid composition, where the content is 44% palmitic acid (C16:0), 5% stearic acid (C18:0), 39% mono-unsaturated oleic acid (C18:1), and 10% poly linoleic acid. unsaturated (C18:2) in the CPO sample. A simple palm fruit processing process can produce good quality CPO with relatively low water content and ALB content, namely below 0.5% and 5.0% respectively.

Oil palm plantations are the fundamental units in a palm supply chain. The fresh fruit bunch (FFB) yield at a plantation varies based on the maturity (age) of the oil palm trees. Failure to account for the maturity can lead to a demand-supply mismatch. To address this issue, Rajakal et al. (2021) have developed a mathematical optimisation model to determine the optimal maturity of the plantations needed to meet the crude palm oil demand. This article presents the data set on the FFB production and land use change (LUC) emissions at the plantations. The model was coded and solved in LINGO 18.0. The data can be used for further investigation in optimising other related activities in a palm supply chain.

PT Syaukath Agro is a company operating in the Agribusiness Sector which is engaged in processing palm oil Fresh Fruit Bunches (FFB) into crude palm oil (CPO), Palm Kernel (PK) and shells. The palm oil processing system consists of several stages starting from receiving Fresh Fruit Bunches (FFB) to becoming palm oil or Crude Palm Oil (CPO). The palm oil processing process can be used in several stages carried out at each station. Based on interviews conducted, each station has a different level of risk of accidents, one of the stations that has a large risk of work accidents is the boiler station which is the heart of a palm oil factory where the steam boiler is the source of power and the source of the steam that will used to process palm oil. Boilers have potential dangers or risks when operated. The risks that often occur are falls, slips, burns, scalds, heat, noise, so it is very important to supervise and provide guidance regarding work safety. The size of the accident caused will certainly have a detrimental impact on the company. The severity of the accident can be determined through identification of potential dangers and risk assessment of all boiler operating activities at PT. Syaukath Agro. Based on the results of research conducted using the hirarc method, potential hazards found in boiler stations include: Unergonomic Working Attitudes, Noise Levels >84 dB with 8 Hours/Day Exposure, Working climate temperature (hot) 31°C on exposure >8 working hours/day, and oil buildup. Types of risk of work accidents at boiler stations consist of: Falls, injuries (slipping, slippery floors) Burns (in contact with hot objects around), Heat exhausting (Heat), Work accidents (fatigue ), hearing loss (noise), blisters (burns), health problems (muscles, bones), contact dermatitis (exposed to dangerous toxic radiation). Based on the results of risk control, it was found that the most appropriate type of control recommendation is administrative control and compliance with the use of personal protective equipment (PPE). Administration (Administration Control) is carried out by creating or providing a work system that can reduce the possibility of someone being exposed to potential dangers. The hierarchy of control of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is used to provide a boundary between exposure to the body and the potential danger received by the body.