Corrigendum to “The sociometabolic transition of a small Greek island: Assessing stock dynamics, resource flows, and material circularity from 1929 to 2019”

Their geomorphological characteristics make island systems special focal points for sustainability challenges. The Circular Economy (CE) Action Plan of the European Union foresees tailored solution sets for Europe's outermost regions and islands to tackle region-specific sustainability challenges. We address the question of how islands can achieve more sustainable resource use by utilizing the socioeconomic metabolism (SEM) framework to assess and explore CE strategies for the Greek island of Samothraki. For this purpose, we apply material and energy flow analysis on a regional level and derive, as one of the first studies, a complete time series from 1929 to 2019 for socioeconomic biophysical stocks and flows according to mass-balance principles for an island economy. Results show that in the past 90 years Samothraki's material stocks grew fivefold, domestic material consumption threefold, and solid waste generation fivefold. Samothraki transitioned from an almost entirely circular biophysical economy toward one in which 40% of input materials and 30% of output materials are estimated as non-circular. This transition resulted in an accumulated solid waste stock on the island almost half the size of current material stocks in use. With this study we aim at providing ideas and opportunities for achieving more sustainable and circular material use on small islands. The published SEM database aims at supporting the public and the private sector and the island community at large with information key to establishing more sustainable material and energy use patterns on Samothraki. This article met the requirements for a Gold–Gold JIE data openness badge described at http://jie.click/badges.

Circular Urban Metabolism Framework

Material stocks of infrastructure, buildings, and machinery are the biophysical basis of production and consumption. They are a crucial lever for resource efficiency and a sustainable circular economy. While material stock research has proliferated over the last years, most studies investigated specific materials or end-uses, usually not embedded into an economy-wide perspective. Herein, we present a novel version of the economy-wide, dynamic, inflow-driven model of material inputs, stocks, and outputs (MISO2), and present a global, country-level application. Currently, MISO2 covers 14 supply chain processes from raw material extraction to processing, trade, recycling, and waste management, as well as 13 end-uses of stocks. The derived database covers 23 raw materials and 20 stock-building materials, across 177 countries from 1900 to 2016. We find that total material stocks amount to 1093 Gt in 2016, of which the majority are residential (290 Gt) and non-residential buildings (234 Gt), as well as civil engineering (243 Gt), and roads (313 Gt). The other nine end-uses covering stationary and mobile machinery, as well as short-lived products, amount to 13 Gt. Material stocks per capita are highly unequally distributed around the world, with one order of magnitude difference between low- and high-income countries. Results agree well with similar global country-level studies. Low data quality for some domains, especially for lower-income countries and for sand and gravel aggregates, warrant further attention. In conclusion, the MISO2 model and the derived database provide stock-flow consistent perspectives of the socio-economic metabolism around the world, enabling multiple novel and policy relevant research opportunities. This article met the requirements for a silver-gold JIE data openness badge described at http://jie.click/badges.

Energy and materials support food production, maintain and expand material stocks (e.g. buildings and roads) and provide services. In this paper, an exergy-based approach is used to provide an integrated perspective on the evolution of societal resource flows and stocks. The scope of this analysis is from resource extraction (primary exergy stage) to end uses such as low temperature heating and illumination (useful exergy stage). From 1900 to 2010, global exergy consumption at the primary stage increased from 115 to 903 EJ/year, of which 88–89% corresponded to energy flows, including food and feed. Useful exergy flows increased from 9 to 148 EJ/year, of which 47%, in 2010, was contained within material goods. Primary to useful efficiency doubled from 8% in 1900 to 16% in 2010. However, this improvement is far from that which is required to achieve climate targets for 2060. The amount of resource flows required per unit of economic activity decreased at both the primary (from 58.5 to 17.0 GJ/$) and useful (from 4.7 to 2.8 GJ/$) exergy stages, indicating relative decoupling. The exergy in stocks went from 91 to 820 EJ. Stock intensity reduced from 46.2 to 15.5 GJ/$-year−1 due to a shift in stock composition rather than dematerialisation in mass terms. Future research needs to identify the relationships between resource flow intensity and stock intensity in order to meet sustainability targets, including those linked to future resource demand. The scope could be expanded to include additional resources such as water and rare earth metals.

Physical components of societies like infrastructures need biophysical resources for their construction, maintenance and use. These components, analyzed as societies' material stocks, predefine energy and raw materials and provide societal services, necessary for their functioning and for social welfare. The nexus between stocks, the resource flows and the services, is crucial for the analysis of social-ecological transformations. In this paper, we build on recent work in socio-metabolic research on the stock-flow-service nexus and develop a conceptual approach how to examine this nexus while addressing the challenges of social-ecological transformations. We refer to the concept of provisioning systems to analyze the institutions, technologies, knowledge and practices mediating between actors and resources but also the power relations involved in the creation and transformation of this nexus. It enables us to understand how specific stock-flow-service nexuses are constructed, which lock-in effects result from specific stock-flow-service configurations and which options can be envisaged for its transformation towards lower resource use. We argue that provisioning systems need to be analyzed as structuring space and time as well as embedded within the contested terrain of the state. By providing this conceptualization, we aim to offer an understanding which can help to define options for the transformation of the stock-flow-service nexus in a transdisciplinary process.

Physical components of societies like infrastructures need biophysical resources for their construction, maintenance and use. These components, analyzed as societies' material stocks, predefine energy and raw materials and provide societal services, necessary for their functioning and for social welfare. The nexus between stocks, the resource flows and the services, is crucial for the analysis of social-ecological transformations. In this paper, we build on recent work in socio-metabolic research on the stock-flow-service nexus and develop a conceptual approach how to examine this nexus while addressing the challenges of social-ecological transformations. We refer to the concept of provisioning systems to analyze the institutions, technologies, knowledge and practices mediating between actors and resources but also the power relations involved in the creation and transformation of this nexus. It enables us to understand how specific stock-flow-service nexuses are constructed, which lock-in effects result from specific stock-flow-service configurations and which options can be envisaged for its transformation towards lower resource use. We argue that provisioning systems need to be analyzed as structuring space and time as well as embedded within the contested terrain of the state. By providing this conceptualization, we aim to offer an understanding which can help to define options for the transformation of the stock-flow-service nexus in a transdisciplinary process.

Marine litter is a worldwide issue affecting local communities with increasing environmental and economic impacts, with Single-Use-Plastic (SUP) pollution being of specific concern. The tourism industry has been identified as one of the major sector contributing to marine plastic pollution therefor in need to take urgent actions. Small islands are particularly vulnerable and need locally adapted strategies to effectively tackle this issue. This study proposes the use of a participative system-based approach to co-design, with local stakeholders, a roadmap tackling Single-Use-Plastic (SUP) in the hospitality industry of small Greek touristic islands. Policy, industry, civil society and academia representatives were involved in a participative co-creation process to co-identify the best mix of policy instruments and innovations (social and technological) adapted to the local island context, capable of reducing plastic consumption and littering in the island while fostering behavioural change (from consumers and local businesses perspective). Results show the lack of knowledge and awareness, the limited financial resources and expertise, and the low efficiency of the waste management system as the main challenges. A roadmap of short and mid-term actions, based on the Circular Economy reduce, reuse, recycle principles was co-developed, including raising awareness campaigns across stakeholder groups, positive economic incentives, development of capacity building and partnerships within the quadruple helix (academia, business, public authorities and civil society representatives), forming the basis of the municipal island free SUP strategy. The active involvement of public and private actors as well as the civil society, empowering local actors and developing trust across stakeholder groups are key factors to develop a successful strategy able to tackle plastic pollution locally. Pilot experiments also proved to be a determinant for the adoption of sustainable solutions in the context of small islands.

Material stocks in global electricity infrastructures – An empirical analysis of the power sector's stock-flow-service nexus

Resource flows and land use in Austria 1950–2000: using the MEFA framework to monitor society–nature interaction for sustainability

Resource efficiency for UK cars from 1960 to 2015: From stocks and flows to service provision

A simulation-based bottom-up approach for analysing the evolution of residential buildings’ material stocks and environmental impacts – A case study of Inner Melbourne

The large quantity and long service time of construction has a crucial impact on the flow of resources during construction, maintenance, and at the end of life. Reducing waste disposal and increasing recycling rates consequently reduce the consumption of primary raw materials. Hence, through material flow and stock analysis, material consumption, waste generation, and waste utilization can be quantified. Previous research on the material turnover in the transportation infrastructure sector focused on well-developed cities or countries and showed that maintenance has an increasing contribution to the material input and output. The present study investigated the anthropogenic flows and stocks of asphalt in the road network of an Austrian municipality. The material flow analysis was based on detailed construction reports, regional expert estimations, simulations, and literature. The retrospective analysis from 2006 to 2020 revealed that the asphalt stock of the municipality is constantly increasing through semierratic input and output flows of asphalt. Maintenance of the road network through reconstruction made a major contribution to the stock increase due to improving the road layout. Asphalt outputs of the municipality are reclaimed asphalt, excess asphalt during construction, and asphalt dispersed from the road due to deterioration. The flow into the environment is often neglected but diminishes the potential recycling amount, contributes to dust pollution, and is a source of microplastic. Reclaimed asphalt was not utilized in new asphalt mixtures in the municipality, as it was downcycled and applied as granular material. Several factors, including regional circumstances, were identified for downcycling. This article met the requirements for a gold-gold JIE data openness badge described at http://jie.click/badges.

Rainfall variability, exacerbated by climate change, poses significant challenges to water resource management, particularly in regions prone to intense droughts and floods. The Greek islands, characterized by poor water potential, face interannual water supply issues dating back to their earliest habitation. Rainwater harvesting (RWH) systems emerge as a promising solution to address water scarcity in these regions. This study simulates RWH systems for two small Greek islands, Fourni and Nisyros, representing similar rainfall regimes. Multiple scenarios are explored, and system reliability is assessed in light of simulated daily rainfall time series incorporating climate change projections. Utilizing eight low/medium (RCP 4.5) and eight high (RCP 8.5) emission scenarios over a future 35-year period, the study evaluates system reliability based on model parameters (collection area: 40 to 140 m2, rainwater tank volume: 5 to 30 m3, number of household members: 2, 3), with 30% coverage of total daily water demand (180 L/d). Negligible evapotranspiration effects are assumed due to closed-type tanks. Results indicate that the RWH system demonstrates high efficiency in general. The investigation for the future period revealed that the system’s performance varies, with instances where daily demand targets are not met, even with a 30 m3 tank. This research underscores the potential of RWH systems as a cost-effective “green” solution, particularly in regions with deficient rainfall regimes. It highlights the importance of localized water management strategies, reducing reliance on mainland water transportation, and assisting desalination unit operations. In conclusion, this study contributes to the assessment of RWH systems, demonstrating their viability as a sustainable water management solution in regions facing water scarcity, contingent on local rainfall conditions and system design parameters.

Recent research suggests that over 75% of resources extracted globally now go toward creating, maintaining, or operating material stocks (MS) to provide societal services like housing, transport, education, and health. However, the integrity of current and future built environments, and the capacity of the system to continue providing services, are threatened by extreme events and sea‐level rise (SLR). This is especially significant for the most disaster‐prone countries in the world: Small Island Developing States. In the aftermath of disasters, complex rebuilding efforts require substantial material and economic resources, oftentimes incurring massive debt. Understanding the composition and dynamics of MS and environmental threats is essential for current and future sustainable development. Drawing on open‐source OpenStreetMap (OSM) data, we conducted a spatially explicit material stock analysis (MSA) for The Bahamas for 2021, where we included buildings and transport MS, and SLR exposure scenarios. Total MS was estimated at 76 million tonnes (Mt) or 191 tonnes per capita (t/cap) of which transport comprises 43%. These MS are likely to increase by 36 Mt in the future. Simulations show that under 1‐, 2‐, or 3‐m SLR scenarios, around 4, 6, and 9 Mt of current MS will be exposed, with transport MS at greatest risk, with over 80% of total exposure in each scenario. Our findings highlight the critical role that key MS play in sustainability and resilience, contributing to the emphasis on effective development planning and climate change adaptation strategies, and to the exploration of the use of OSM data for studying these objectives.

Material stocks are an important part of the metabolism of society. Due to their long service-lifetimes, these stocks induce long-term dynamics of resource use for their regular reproduction, triggering resource flows during construction, use, maintenance, refurbishment and at the end of their useful lifetime in the form of waste. This chapter explores the material stocks of residential buildings and transportation infrastructure in the EU25 and the way these stocks are related to the overall material consumption of construction minerals. Special focus lies on flows required for maintenance and reproduction versus expansion of the stock. The dynamics of stocks and flows are assessed from a systems perspective on inputs, end-of-life waste and recycling flows in 2009, and a trend scenario for 2020. Thus, we explore the potential impacts of the European Waste Frame-work Directive, which strives for a significant increase in recycling. We find that in the EU25, a large share of material inputs are directed at maintaining and refurbishing existing stocks. Proper management of existing transportation networks and residential buildings is therefore crucial for the size of future material flows. Halting, or at least decelerating, ongoing stock expansion is another promising avenue toward more-sustainable resource use.