9 - Food factory design to prevent deliberate product contamination

Chapter 5 - Food Defense

Food passing several stages in the long and sophisticated food chain processing (from farm to fork) before being consumed and in each stage can cause morbidity and mortality, and also destruction to food industry. This is because food is a vulnerable media for contamination by thousands of biological, chemical and physical agents, and radio nuclear materials. Such contamination may occur intentionally or unintentionally far of “intended crime.” On the other side, food may deliberately contaminate within “intended terroristic crime.” Food and water contamination remains the easiest way to distribute toxic agents for the purpose of terrorism. Intentional contamination of food and water supplies by such harmful agents for terrorist purpose is a real and current threat to consumer’s health. This presentation addresses the chemical contamination of foods. Unlike most microbiological agents, chemical contaminants present in foods are often unaffected by thermal processing. They can be classified according to the source of contamination and the mechanism by which they enter the food product. They include a wide range of agrochemicals used in agricultural practices and animal husbandry with the intent to increase crops and reduce costs. Such agents include pesticides (e.g. insecticides, herbicides, rodenticides), plant growth regulators, veterinary drugs (e.g. nitrofuran, fluoroquinolones, malachite green, chloramphenicol), and bovine somatotropin (rBST). Moreover, food can be contaminated by chemicals that are present in the environment in which the food is grown, harvested, transported, stored, packaged, processed, and consumed. Possible contaminants include radio nuclides (e.g., cesium, strontium), heavy metals (e.g., arsenic, mercury, cadmium, copper), persistent organic pollutants, [e.g., polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE), acrylamide, furan, perchlorate], as well as numerous substances attributed to packaging materials [e.g., antimony, tin, lead, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), semicarbazide, benzophenone, isopropylthioxanthone (ITX), bisphenol-A]. At present, melamine represents one of the largest deliberate food contaminant. Increasing incidences of cancer, chronic kidney diseases, suppression of the immune system, sterility among males and females, endocrine disorders, neurological and behavioral disorders, especially among children, have been attributed to chronic exposure to toxic chemicals and/or long-term consumption of food contaminated with such chemicals. Chronic exposure to food chemical contaminants may adversely affect human health even at contamination levels below MRLs (maximum residue limits) of each chemical. Furthermore, exposure through food to different contaminants may lead to additive or synergistic effects, a matter which poses an urgent need to improve our knowledge on such possible interactions at the intestinal level. Sophisticated analytical tools needed for detection of some chemical compounds, such as dioxins and nanoparticle materials, are not available in many countries, a matter which requires assisting these countries to raise their capacity building in this concern. On the other side, there is an urgent need for establishing a Security Plan Development (SPD) which can be realized easily and efficiently by implementing the principles of hazard analyses and critical control points (HACCP). In conclusion, although unintentional contamination of food could be controlled by local regulations, intentional contamination for the purpose of “terrorism” should be faced internationally and early as soon as multinational consequences are expected. Coordination between food-safety authorities worldwide is needed to efficiently exchange information and to enable tracking and recalling of affected products to ensure food safety and to protect public health. Cooperation between countries has to be activated and exchanging information is something very important to minimize threat and contamination on national, regional and international levels. Prevention and response are the two major strategies for countering the threat of food terrorist, and they are everyone’s responsibility all over the world in such manner.

Since September 11, 2001, concern has increased about potential terrorist attacks involving the use of chemical agents. In addition, recent cases involving intentional or inadvertent contamination of food with chemicals have highlighted the need for health-care providers and public health officials to be alert for patients in their communities who have signs and symptoms consistent with chemical exposures. For example, in February 2003, a Michigan supermarket worker was charged with intentionally contaminating 200 lbs. of meat with a nicotine-containing insecticide. Although intentional release of chemical agents might be an overt event (i.e., one whose nature reveals itself), such as release of a nerve agent in a subway or a large explosion of a chemical container, a chemical release might instead be a covert event (i.e., an unrecognized release in which the presence of ill persons might be the first sign of an exposure), such as deliberate contamination of food, water, or a consumer product. To increase the likelihood that health-care providers will recognize a chemical-release-related illness and that public health authorities will implement the appropriate emergency response and public health actions, CDC identified examples of chemical-induced illness and created appropriate guidance for health-care providers and public health personnel. This report summarizes the epidemiologic clues and clinical signs or patterns of illness that might suggest covert release of a chemical agent. CDC is working to develop national surveillance capabilities for detecting chemical-release-related illnesses.

With increasing global interest in intentional food contamination, expert meetings have been held by the G8, while the U.S. government has proposed policies for preventing food terrorism and intentional contamination. However, Japan has no food defense policy, and some food companies are concerned about an impending terrorism and contamination crisis. We developed a Food Defense Checklist for Food Producers and Processors and published the details on the website. We also developed tentative Food Defense Guidelines for Food Producers and Processors on the basis of the checklist. In this study, we tested the usability of the guidelines through a hearing survey regarding food plants. We also compared the checklist with the implementation manual for the approval system of Comprehensive Sanitation Management and Production Process (the Japanese equivalent of the HACCP). We organized the comments gleaned from the hearing survey and provided a detailed explanation of the guidelines. As the HACCP has been adopted by Japanese food companies, we included both precautionary measures and the HACCP perspective in the explanation regarding the rapid dissemination of information. The guidelines are useful for Japanese food companies, and it is important to disseminate knowledge on this topic and implement food defense measures.

Agroterrorism and food terrorism have been identified as important homeland security issues by officials in the public health, government, and food industry sectors of the U.S. Intentional contamination of food has already occurred both abroad and in North America. Outbreak investigation and control measures in response to intentional contamination differ from those employed in cases of naturally occurring contamination. Operations-based exercise efforts specific to bioterrorism events are essential to train public health personnel and first responders to consider the possibility of deliberate contamination during an outbreak investigation. A recent search of the Rand Corporation's Public Health Preparedness database identified no operations-based (functional or full-scale) exercises involving foodborne contamination with a biological or chemical agent.This manuscript describes a functional exercise developed and conducted by the University of Illinois, College of Veterinary Medicine, Section of Community Health and Preventive Medicine. The functional exercise simulated a food-borne terrorism event and was designed to evaluate the efficacy of the Food Emergency Response Plan (FERP) of the Illinois Department of Public Health (IDPH), Division of Food, Drugs and Dairies (DFDD). The exercise was held on November 18th and 19th, 2008 at the College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL.Based on this and previous exercises and training programs developed and conducted by CHPM, it is apparent that the more exercise designers, evaluators and public health and support agency participants move away from discussion based exercises and towards operations based exercises, the more strengths and deficiencies in preparation and response of participating agencies are revealed. Although public health agencies have begun training personnel and partner agencies to consider intentional contamination of food during an outbreak investigation, the relative lack of widespread operations-based exercises to assess preparedness in response to an intentional incident of food-borne contamination seems to be an important deficiency in homeland security. Additional funding to create opportunities for public health and first responder personnel to participate in operations-based bioterrorism response exercises is needed.

BackgroundVarious stages of the food chain, from production to processing to distribution, can impact food safety. The concept of “food defense” has emerged as a countermeasure against intentional contamination of food with foreign substances. Although knowledge of food hygiene is common among consumers, there are currently no reports of consumer surveys on food defense.ObjectiveThis study aims to investigate consumer awareness of food defense and food safety. We analyzed the results focusing on how consumers behave when they find abnormalities in food to further our knowledge on promoting food defense measures.MethodsParticipants completed a web-based questionnaire that included items related to awareness of food safety and food defense, as well as actions to be taken in cases of food abnormalities, such as contamination by foreign substances, the presence of a bad smell in purchased food, and the inclusion of extra items not selected by the individual. The participants were asked to indicate their preference among the 5 suggested actions in each case using a 6-point Likert scale. Data analysis involved aggregating responses into binary values. Stepwise linear regression analysis was conducted to examine the relationship between selected actions and questionnaire items, such as sex, age, and personality.ResultsA total of 1442 respondents completed the survey, and the majority of participants placed importance on food safety when making food purchases. The recognition of each term was as follows: 95.2% (n=1373) for “food security and safety,” 95.6% (n=1379) for “food hygiene,” and 17.1% (n=247) for “food defense.” The percentages of those who answered that they would “eat without worrying” in the case of “contamination by foreign substances,” “bad smell,” or “including unpurchased product” in the frozen food they purchased were 9.1% (n=131), 4.8% (n=69), and 30.7% (n=443), respectively. The results showed that contacting the manufacturer was the most common action when faced with contaminated food or food with a bad smell. Interestingly, a significant percentage of respondents indicated they would upload the issue on social networking sites. Logistic regression analysis revealed that male participants and the younger generation were more likely to choose the option of eating contaminated food without worrying. Additionally, the tendency to upload the issue on social networking sites was higher among respondents who were sociable and brand-conscious.ConclusionsThe findings of this study indicate that if food intentionally contaminated with a foreign substance is sold and delivered to consumers, it is possible consumers may eat it and experience health problems. Therefore, it is crucial for not only food manufacturers but also food delivery service providers to consider food defense measures such as protecting food from intentional contamination. Additionally, promoting consumer education and awareness regarding food defense can contribute to enhancing food safety throughout the food chain.

Bioterrorism presents the use of microorganisms and their toxins as agents in terrorist actions in political, economic, religious, ideological or other purposes. Today, in the changing world of many contradictions bioterrorism is a real challenge for many non-state and state actors. The main target of bioterrorist acts are humans while a critical infrastructure can be used as a target depending on its impact on life and everyday activities. Among them, food supplies and distribution systems are extremely important and their deliberate contamination as a part of terrorist action is a real threat that can cause even global and serious health, ecological, economic and political consequences. Most health professionals have limited knowledge in the recognition of diseases from either natural or intentional contamination of food. They are not trained to respond appropriately to a terrorist assault for management of the consequences. Outbreaks of both unintentional and intentional food-borne disease can be managed by the same mechanisms contained in a crisis management plan. So, in order to be prepared for any incidents of food and water terrorism, it is essential to establish procedures, plans, to train the experts and to improve response capacities. The other subjects of society, especially decision makers as well as security professionals must also pay more attention to this problem in order to prevent it.

Fortunately, the intentional contamination of food or water supplies out of criminal or terroristic motivation is a rather rare event. However, in the face of asymmetric warfare and as the consequences of such an event would be severe, food defence as a necessary supplement to food safety is gaining increased attention. While some progress has been made in developing non-target detection devices, the contamination of food or water supplies using readily available rodenticides may still be revealed only by complex analytical techniques. The presented study therefore aimed to develop a quick and easy screening method for the detection of sixteen globally common rodenticides in foodstuffs. Robust operation with limited personnel and analytical resources were one benchmark to be met by the method, which uses a slightly modified QuEChERS (quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, safe) protocol for dispersive solid-phase extraction and subsequent ion-pair chromatography with diode-array and fluorescence detection. Quantification limits were as low as 5 µg/kg with satisfying bias (recovery) and repeatability rates of 77 to 117% and 1.8 to 17.1%, respectively. The developed method provides reliable and robust detection of these deadly poisons at toxic concentrations, which was demonstrated impressively in an improvised assault scenario.

11 - Food factory design to prevent deliberate product adulteration

American consumers continually demand more fresh produce and food throughout the year, in particular during nonproductive seasons in the Northern Hemisphere. Consumer demand escalates food imports and requires delivering more tonnage through the current U.S. Ports of Entry (POE). Increased volumes of imported foods with ever-increasing velocity have been associated with significant food safety risks (unintentional food contamination from pathogens, chemical, or physical agents) and food defense risks (intentional food contamination by disgruntled employees or terrorists). While import inspections should help protect against outbreaks of food-borne illnesses, as well as plant or animal pests and diseases, it is neither possible nor optimal to inspect all produce at the POE. This chapter focuses on the impacts of increased international trade on the marketing system, emphasizing the sourcing of products from other countries, inspection and surveillance activities, and policies to mitigate potential market failure from food safety/defense risks. A framework to evaluate economic efficiency of policies and tools used to ensure imported food quality is discussed.

Food Defense

As globalization increases, supply chains are becoming increasingly complex and vulnerable, making the management of their security an important part of corporate management. The need to adopt control and prevention measures that allow for guaranteeing security in international commercial operations is essential to prevent becoming a target of these threats. Some of these threats are terrorism, piracy and theft. Within the food industry, food terrorism has gained relevance due to the extreme consequences it may have on both public health and the market. Food terrorism refers to the intentional contamination of food in any link of the supply chain, which covers everything from production to consumption. This chapter deals with the problems of food terrorism and makes a proposal that allows to establish a management system to prevent intentional food contamination in the supply chain through managing risks and improving security in the supply chain on this aspect.

As globalization increases, supply chains are becoming increasingly complex and vulnerable, making the management of their security an important part of corporate management. The need to adopt control and prevention measures that allow for guaranteeing security in international commercial operations is essential to prevent becoming a target of these threats. Some of these threats are terrorism, piracy and theft. Within the food industry, food terrorism has gained relevance due to the extreme consequences it may have on both public health and the market. Food terrorism refers to the intentional contamination of food in any link of the supply chain, which covers everything from production to consumption. This chapter deals with the problems of food terrorism and makes a proposal that allows to establish a management system to prevent intentional food contamination in the supply chain through managing risks and improving security in the supply chain on this aspect.

Food safety and food defense are both responsibilities of public health agencies. Food safety practices within restaurants are regulated by state and local public health laws based on the US Food and Drug Administration Model Food Code. However, little is known about preemptive practices against intentional food-borne outbreaks within restaurants. The researchers administered a survey to a 50 percent random sample of South Carolina's restaurants, a state that relies heavily on tourism and the restaurant industry for its economic well-being. The survey received a response rate of 15 percent. The food defense practice items fall under three functional categories: employee management and training practices; vendor and delivery-related practices; and physical facilities and operational security practices. This study presents the results, classified by geographic region. Findings indicate some key areas of vulnerability that need attention to protect the public from mass food outbreaks due to intentional contamination. Of concern, there is much variation in practices by geographic region. On the basis of the survey, recommendations are made to improve restaurant preparedness against food-borne outbreaks from terrorism and malevolent contamination.

Intentional contamination of the food supply poses a real and potentially catastrophic threat to society. Overall, it has the potential to result in disastrous and far-reaching effects, including direct morbidity and/or mortality, disruption of food distribution, loss of consumer confidence in government and the food supply, business failures, trade restrictions, and ripple effects on the economy. Key interrelated factors specific to food and the food system create this unusual vulnerability, both structural and social. The efficiency of the food system enables products derived from a wide range of global sources to be sourced, produced, and distributed rapidly due to the speed of national and global just-in-time supply chains. The food industry’s routine food safety measures are not designed to protect against high-impact deliberate contamination. When contamination occurs, identification of its nature and extent may take days, weeks, or even longer. Unintentional foodborne illness can further complicate recognition of intentional contamination events due to the delay in positive association of illnesses to the intentional event. The food/agriculture sector’s infrastructure must be strengthened to mitigate potential harm resulting from deliberate contamination, thereby making the food system less vulnerable to attack or destructive economic outcomes. New upward price pressures, declining economies, and constantly changing global trade along the food system supply chain have introduced a new urgency for greater diligence in food defense against deliberate contamination with either economic or terrorist motives. Initiatives include the development of specific countermeasures to minimize or eliminate vulnerabilities, as well as the development of practical solutions that enhance the capability to rapidly identify, contain, respond to, and recover from intentional contamination, both real and threatened. These activities must encompass the entire worldwide farm-to-table food system, from pre-farm inputs through retail sale, consumer food consumption, and public health system response.KeywordsFood safetyIntentional contamination