FAO Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture What it does and how it supports the livestock sector?

A preparatory action on the conservation and sustainable use of EU plant and animal genetic resources in agriculture and forestry was carried over a period of two years (2014-2016). Evidence was gathered through a variety of means in the context of the study. These included a mapping exercise of current activities and the stakeholders involved, a review of existing literature, over three hundred interviews with stakeholders and competent authorities, twenty-one case studies of good practices, and seven thematic workshops covering methodological issues. The findings of the study were shared with stakeholders and competent authorities across the EU28 during a conference which took place at the end of the preparatory action. The analysis highlighted the need to develop an agro-biodiversity strategy towards the conservation and sustainable use of genetic diversity in the EU, while considering issues specific to each of the four domains of the study: plant genetic resources, animal genetic resources, forestry genetic resources; and microbial and invertebrate genetic resources. Significant efforts have to be made by all stakeholders to secure an optimal conservation of genetic resources in the EU, and use these resources in a sustainable way in agriculture and forestry. This can be achieved through e.g. supporting partnerships and cooperation between stakeholders at all levels in the supply chain.

With regard to the survey data of Korean researchers using genetic resources from three genebanks administered by the Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, we conducted conjoint and cluster analyses to estimate the relative importance of genetic resource (microbial, plant and animal) attributes among the researchers. Our results indicate that Korean researchers view price (cost of acquiring an accession), high new functionality (functional properties of germplasms for specific applications and uses) and completely uncovered genomic information (about mutation, genetic transformation, genomic function and pathways) as far more important in decision-making about R&D use of microbial, plant and animal genetic resources, respectively, than other attributes. Furthermore, this study shows that researchers conducting R&D in the microbial and plant genetic resource sectors especially prefer resources from specific domestic environments and Korean indigenous species, respectively. The study also sheds light on different patterns of researcher segments in terms of utilities of attributes and subgroups of researchers who have common needs in the three genetic resource sectors. We proposed some policy and strategic implications based on the results of this study.

The Need to Conserve Farm Animal Genetic Resources Through Community-Based Management in Africa: Should Policy Makers be Concerned?

Valuing animal genetic resources: lessons from plant genetic resources

For 100s of years, livestock producers have employed various types of selection to alter livestock populations. Current selection strategies are little different, except our technologies for selection have become more powerful. Genetic resources at the breed level have been in and out of favour over time. These resources are the raw materials used to manipulate populations, and therefore, they are critical to the past and future success of the livestock sector. With increasing ability to rapidly change genetic composition of livestock populations, the conservation of these genetic resources becomes more critical. Globally, awareness of the need to steward genetic resources has increased. A growing number of countries have embarked on large scale conservation efforts by using in situ, ex situ (gene banking), or both approaches. Gene banking efforts have substantially increased and data suggest that gene banks are successfully capturing genetic diversity for research or industry use. It is also noteworthy that both industry and the research community are utilizing gene bank holdings. As pressures grow to meet consumer demands and potential changes in production systems, the linkage between selection goals and genetic conservation will increase as a mechanism to facilitate continued livestock sector development.

SummaryThis overview analyses the key drivers of change in the global livestock sector and assesses how they are influencing current trends and future prospects in the world's diverse livestock production systems and market chains; and what are their consequent impacts on the management of animal genetic resources for food and agriculture. The trends are occurring in both developing and industrialized countries, but the responses are different. In the developing world, the trends are affecting the ability of livestock to contribute to improving livelihoods and reducing poverty as well as the use of natural resources. In the industrialized world, the narrowing animal genetic resource base in industrial livestock production systems raises the need to maintain a broader range of animal genetic resources to be able to deal with future uncertainties, such as climate change and zoonotic diseases.This chapter discusses:• What are the global drivers of change for livestock systems? Economic development and globalization; changing market demands and the “livestock revolution”; environmental impacts including climate change; and science and technology trends.• How are the livestock production systems responding to the global drivers of change? Trends in the three main livestock production systems (industrial, crop-livestock and pastoral systems); the range and rate of changes occurring in different systems and how these affect animal genetic resources. The implications are that breeds cannot adapt in time to meet new circumstances. Hence new strategies and interventions are necessary to improve the management of animal genetic resources in situations where these genetic resources are most at risk.• What are the implications for animal genetic resources diversity and for future prospects of their use? - Industrial livestock production systems are expected to have a limited demand for biodiversity, while crop-livestock and pastoral systems will rely on biodiversity to produce genotypes of improved productivity under changing environmental and socio-economic conditions. All systems will rely on biodiversity, albeit to varying degrees, to cope with expected climate change.• What immediate steps are possible to improve animal genetic resources characterization, use and conservation? Appropriate institutional and policy frameworks are required to improve animal genetic resources management and these issues are being addressed at national and intergovernmental levels, in a process led by FAO to promote greater international collaboration on animal genetic resources. Based on an analysis of the current situation, the continuing loss of indigenous breeds and new developments in science and technology, there are several complementary actions that can begin to improve the management of animal genetic resources and maintain future options in an uncertain world.These are summarized here as:a. “Keep it on the hoof” - Encouraging the continuing sustainable use of traditional breeds and in situ conservation by providing market-driven incentives, public policy and This paper has benefited from inputs from several reviewers and other contributors, and we thank all for their thoughtful insights. We acknowledge the contributions of our colleagues at FAO, particularly Irene Hoffmann, Dafydd Pilling and Henning Steinfeld, and at the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI): Ade Freeman, Mario Herrero, Olivier Hanotte, Steve Kemp, Sandy McClintock, Sara McClintock, Margaret MacDonald-Levy, Susan MacMillan, Grace Ndungu, An Notenbaert, Mwai Okeyo and Robin Reid. other support to enable livestock keepers to maintain genetic diversity in their livestock populations.b. “Move it or lose it” - Enabling access to and the safe movement of animal genetic resources within and between countries, regions and continents is a key factor in use, development and conservation of animal genetic resources globally.c. “Match breeds to environments” - Understanding the match between livestock populations, breeds and genes with the physical, biological and economic landscape. This “landscape livestock genomics” approach offers the means to predict the genotypes most appropriate to a given environment and, in the longer term, to understand the genetic basis of adaptation of the genotype to the environment.d. “Put some in the bank” — New technologies make ex situ, in vitro conservation of animal genetic resources feasible for critical situations and are a way to provide long-term insurance against future shocks.The multiple values, functions and consequences of livestock production systems and their rapid rate of change lead to divergent interests within and between countries. Conversely, the uncertainty about the implications of rapid, multifaceted global change for each livestock production system and the resulting future changes in the required genetic make-up of animal genetic resources make collective action to tackle conservation of animal genetic resources a long-term, global public good. Conserving animal genetic resources will not by itself solve these problems, but it is an important first step towards maintaining future options.Advances in science and the technology, in areas such as reproductive technology, genomics and spatial analysis, as well as progress in conceptualization of global public good production for the future management of animal genetic resources, should enable the international community to address both the short- and long-term challenges in innovative ways.

The chapter describes three international agreements that have been or are being negotiated by countries through the FAO Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, focusing primarily on the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, which entered into force in June, 2004. The economic, technical, and legal issues which arose over the long negotiating process of this multilateral agreement for the conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources are described, as well as their implications for the design of the Treaty. The chapter describes the Treaty’s multilateral system of access to, and the sharing of benefits resulting from the use of plant genetic resources, including provisions on how it relates to intellectual property rights. It also discusses the role of Farmers’ Rights through which governments can protect relevant local knowledge, and recognizes farmers’ rights to equitable benefit-sharing and to participate in relevant national decisions providing access and benefits to farmers from plant genetic resources. The chapter includes a discussion of the International Code of Conduct for Plant Germplasm Collecting and Transfer, and the negotiations on a Code of Conduct on Biotechnology as it relates to genetic resources for food and agriculture.

The intensification of agriculture has led to remarkable changes in the utilization of agricultural genetic resources and many previously common breeds and varieties have become rare or even endangered (FAO 2007, 2010, Drucker, Gomez & Anderson 2001). In Finland, Eastern and Northern Finncattle, the Kainuu Grey Sheep and the Åland Sheep are endangered according to the FAO classification (FAO 2003) and, for example, majority of the old Finnish crop varieties and Finnish landrace pig are already extinct. Making informed decisions on the appropriate focus and extent of conservation of agricultural genetic resources requires information on both the costs and benefits of conservation. Economic analyses involving the valuation of conservation benefits can guide resource allocation of various types of genetic resources and conservation methods (Artuso 1998). The value of genetic resources is not typically revealed by markets, as they are not directly traded in the markets or the prices of agricultural products do not completely indicate their value (Oldfield 1989, Brown 1990, Drucker et al. 2001). Although the importance of economic analyses has been recognized, the literature on the monetary value of genetic resources in agriculture is relatively limited (see e.g. Evenson et al. 1998 and Rege and Gibson 2003, Ahtiainen & Pouta 2011). Currently the conservation policy of farm agricultural genetic resources in Finland is based on international agreements such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) and the Global Plan of Action for Animal Genetic resources (FAO 2007). National genetic resource programs were initiated for plants in 2003 and for farm animals in 2005 to strengthen the conservation of genetic resources in Finland. Although there has been some progress in the implementation of the programs, they have also suffered from shortage of funds and lack of political interest in conservation. To re-evaluate the conservation policy, there is a need to use valuation methods capable of estimating also the non-use value components of genetic resources, i.e. stated preference methods. The choice experiment (CE) method has been found suitable to valuing genetic resources due to its flexibility and ability to value the traits of breeds or varieties and their attributes. Choice experiment makes it possible to value benefits of both plant genetic resources (PGR) and animal genetic resources (AnGR). The terms refer to all cultivated plant species and varieties, as well as all animal species and breeds that are of interest in terms of food and agricultural production. The CE method can also be used to evaluate the means of conservation in situ (live animals and plants) and ex situ (as seeds, cryopreserved embryos and other genetic material). Previous choice experiments have focused on valuing breeds or varieties and their attributes, especially on attributes that are related to the use of the breed or variety in agriculture (Birol et al. 2006, Ouma et al. 2007). In this study we present the results of a choice experiment valuing the benefits of a genetic resource conservation program in Finland. We test the effect of in situ and ex situ conservation on citizen choices between programs. We also analyse whether the plant varieties and animal breeds are perceived equally valuable by citizen. As the conservation of agricultural genetic resources (AgGR) cannot be expected to be equally valuable to all citizens, we analyse the existence of citizen segments that value differently the conservation of genetic resources. We can assume that AgGR is a rather unknown good for some of the respondents of the valuation survey. However, in valuation surveys respondents are assumed to make “informed” choices when responding to value elicitation questions (e.g. Blomquist &Whitehead 1998). Therefore, we offered an opportunity for respondents to obtain further information on AgGR. In our case, the internet-based survey allowed us also to measure how much time respondents took in reading the information and responding to questions. Furthermore, we also measured response certainty and tested the effects of uncertainty and information as reasons for heterogeneity.

Societal Impact StatementDigitized molecular data are vital to numerous aspects of scientific research and genetic resource use. The Convention on Biological Diversity currently refers to this as “Digital Sequence Information” (DSI), a term not widely adopted by science and lacking a clear definition. There are concerns over the access to genetic resources and absence of benefit sharing by provider countries. Open access to DSI might exacerbate this, which is leading to increasing policy interventions and restricted access to genetic resources and DSI. We analyze current international debate and proposed solutions and provide case studies of DSI use producing tangible benefits for the provider countries and scientific research, demonstrating the importance of open access DSI to achieving conservation goals.SummarySubstantial advances in DNA sequencing over the last decades hold great potential to enhance food security and sustainable use of global biodiversity, benefiting the world's poorest people. Digital Sequence Information (DSI) plays a crucial role in catalyzing research applications that can contribute to international societal and biodiversity conservation targets. However, benefit sharing relating to DSI is difficult to identify and hindered by the lack of clear international governance and legislation, which in turn has led to a reluctance to make DSI publicly and freely available. Critically, no precise definition exists under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the Nagoya Protocol (NP), or the International Treaty for Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA). The key difference between DSI and biological resources, for which access and use are highly regulated under those frameworks, is that information is nonphysical. Information can be replicated and used without movement of, or access to, physical specimens. Thus, regulating the use of DSI is extremely challenging and remains controversial. Here, we review the regulation of DSI and the possible future steps by the international community, in the context of the benefit‐sharing obligations of the CBD, NP, and ITPGRFA. We highlight how multilateral agreements work in practice and are a solution to this impasse. We provide case studies demonstrating how the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and its collaborators address the uncertainty surrounding the use of DSI, illustrating tangible and equitable benefits that have arisen from such use. We conclude that open access to DSI is needed for scientific research and international policy.

The preparation of a Report on the State of the World's Animal Genetic Resources (AnGR) was recommended by the Intergovernmental Technical Working Group on AnGR for Food and Agriculture (ITWG-AnGR) in 1998. This recommendation was subsequently endorsed by the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, the FAO Committee on Agriculture, and the FAO Council and Conference. Creation of the Report is to be achieved through a country-driven process involving the preparation of individual Country Reports, followed by synthesis of information from those reports to produce the first Report on the State of the World's AnGR (SoWAnGR).

The protection of genetic resources in agriculture is an important aspect of biodiversity conservation. Knowledge of the value of genetic resources can contribute to determining the appropriate focus and extent of conservation. This study reviewed and summarised literature on the economic value of genetic resources using meta-analysis. Altogether, 22 studies were used to describe current knowledge on the value of genetic resources. Furthermore, 14 studies with 93 value observations were examined with a meta-regression model to identify variables that explain the willingness-to-pay (WTP) for or willingness-to-accept (WTA) loss of genetic resources. Grain genetic resources were ascribed lower value compared to animal genetic resources (AnGR) and agrobiodiversity, and the values of breeds or varieties and conservation programmes were higher than the value of individual attributes. Future research should address the gaps in knowledge that are relevant for policy-making. This particularly includes improving knowledge on the value of plant genetic resources (PGR), obtaining value estimates for maintaining genetic diversity in Europe and the United States, estimating the relative magnitude of use and non-use values and determining the value consumers place on genetic resources and diversity in agriculture. An extensive database with valuation literature on genetic resources that fulfils the requirements for benefit transfer is essential to utilise value information more efficiently in decision-making situations.

Introduction The intersection of intellectual property and the human right to food raises contentious and unresolved issues of international law and politics. Analysis of these issues is made even more challenging by two distinct but related developments – (1) the diversity and complexity of the rules and institutions that regulate the creation, ownership, and exploitation of plant genetic resources (PGRs) for food and agriculture and of the biotechnologies used to manipulate them, and (2) the expansion, over the last quarter century, of the normative content of the human right to food and of intellectual property rights for plant-related innovations. The first development – the diversity and complexity of the legal and institutional landscape – stems from the fact that the international rules governing PGRs and agrobiotechnologies include not only multilateral intellectual property agreements, the International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), and customary human rights law, but also treaties, declarations, and resolutions adopted under the auspices of the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, and regional organizations such as the European and African Unions and the Andean Community. Scholars have labeled this dense thicket of overlapping rules and institutions as a “regime complex” for PGRs. And they have explained how the existence of multiple negotiating forums within the complex enable governments and public interest NGOs to shift from one venue to another and to select the venue most conducive to advancing their preferred legal and policy outcomes.

Institutionalizing Global Genetic Resource Commons: Towards Aternative Models for Facilitating Access in the Global Biodiversity Regime

Plant genetic resources are an important component of biodiversity and provide the basic genetic variability that allow new and improved cultivars to be developed. Numerous germplasm collections have been established and it is important to established that such collections are representative and accessible to breeders and biotechnologists. Molecular markers provide the best estimate of genetic diversity since they are independent of the confounding effects of environmental factors. Assays based on the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) are considered to meet both the technical and genetical requirements for the characterisation of plant and animal genetic resources. Two main approaches are described, based on anonymous and defined primers. The use of both randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and microsatellites or simple sequence repeats (SSR) for the characterisation of perennial tree species, and distribution of variability within gene pools is reported. The detection of interspecific gene introgression between coffee species with RAPD markers is described together with the use of microsatellites to genotype potato. The use of PCR-based assays will facilitate the evaluation and utilisation of plant genetic resources.

Genetic resources work and breeding in farm animals received good news from Interlaken, Switzerland in September 2007. The FAO coordinated conference accepted the Global Plan of Action for farm animal genetic resources (visit http://www.fao.org/AG/AGAInfo/programmes/en/genetics/documents/Interlaken/GPA_en.pdf). It is not unusual that the final wrangling took place over funding, and a consensus was reached by allocating the financing responsibility across the individual countries, FAO budget and the still unnamed donating organizations. The Plan gives greatest emphasis to the objectives which are grouped into four areas: (i) characterization and invention of animal breeds and populations, (ii) sustainable selection programmes, (iii) maintenance of genetic variation and (iv) strategy papers, institutions and research needed to accomplish all the work. The final outcome is a very useful document which shows how aware the animal production sector is about the importance of genetic variation. The text is encouraging in that it promotes revealing and fully utilizing the entire genetic spectrum available. The goals in the breeding area stem from recent insights into the management of genetic variation and the relationship between production and fitness traits. These goals require collaboration between experts in animal health care and in production technology and building animal production within the scope of available natural resources. The finalization of the Global Plan of Action went surprisingly smoothly. This was probably because the delegates with a background in administration had worked through the same process in the plant sector. They were wise enough to avoid the pitfalls in the process. The success of the decision making may also have grown from the family-like spirit experienced in animal breeding congresses – this time in the valleys of the rivers Simmen and Emmen and watching cows pasturing on mountain slopes and enjoying tasty local cheeses. In the plant sector, the cumbersome questions of the preparation phase were about ownership. The plant genetic resources are seed and cultivation banks funded by public money. According to the Plant Treaty, these reserves can now be accessed free of charge by any breeder. The difficulties of the plant negotiations are indicated by the Treaty still excluding plant species such as soybean, peanut, sugarcane, cotton and tomato. And few countries have not signed the treaty yet. The main farm animal populations carry the variation or all of the potential for selection within them and do not need to resort to separate banks or conservation herds. The genetic resources are part of the breeding programmes and are jointly owned by the animal keepers and breeding organizations. The most popular breeds are enjoying a very active international trade of breeding animals, semen and embryos. The exchange benefits both the seller and buyer and it is done following common business practices. The ownership issues therefore played a minor role in the creation of the Global Plan. A few words of warning should be mentioned, however. The machinery which discussed and wrote the Plant Treaty is not rusty at all. One would believe that the calm animal breeding sector is activated if unnecessary, and complicated regulations are threatening the breeding business, or if the supply of patent applications on animal breeding keeps exceeding the number of genuine inventions in the field. The hottest current topic in animal production is the increased global consumption of milk and meat. This has pushed up the prices of animal products and most likely they will stay high. The permanent news on farm animals relates to diseases – sporadically emerging avian flu, foot and mouth disease and pandemias caused by new insect species penetrating up to the warming north. The big five in the world’s livestock production are cattle, chicken, goat, pig and sheep. The production in industrialized countries is based on few international breeds or hybrids. The production in developing countries is coming from locally adapted strains, which are much less homogenous than assumed by the breed concept generated from the European tradition of strong breed societies. The maintenance of these adaptations needs awareness raising, inventory surveys and knowledge and technology transfer. When the diversity is expressed as number of breeds, the picture for well-surveyed developed countries looks better than it is, even more so, as in some cases the breed changes a name when a country or language border is crossed. The major breeding companies are operating internationally and at the same time clustering into a small effective number of operators. The most extreme one is dairy cattle where there is one major breed Holstein and where the most important males used in different parts of the world are highly related. Consequently the global genetic basis has narrowed drastically and some harmful recessives have been dragged up by popular sires. Now the undesirable phenotypes are commonly visible. The Mendelian defects can be easily eradicated – though sometimes at a high price. The inbreeding depression is creeping in through the accumulation of several tiny effects. It can be removed only by hiding it under dominant alleles. Crossing trials with unrelated breeds continue and the first results with red breeds are encouraging (e.g. Heins et al., three papers in J. Dairy Sci., 89, 2799–2804, 2805–2810 & 4944–4951). It is interesting to see that diversity matters. It is quite obvious that the breeders seek help horizontally among high-producing breeds rather than make compromises with an exotic breed and poor performance, or among local animal populations without believing in the travelling salesman’s glossy brochures. Hence the most feasible strategy for the overall maintenance of genetic resources is the continuation of several competitive selection and breed development programmes. Where do we go from here? When the process towards the Global Plan started, the first step was to collect information from individual countries about the state of animal genetic resources. Until that time the discussion had been on fairly minor points, while now the questions were loaded by challenging the assessment of the main features of animal production and the state and development of breeds and human resources to support the review work and continued improvement. We now have the responses summarized and crystallized into clear guidelines for future national and international work. The conference unanimously augmented the Interlaken Declaration with the text: ‘We recognize the need to promote the development of knowledge, in particular through research, leading to improved sustainable use, development and conservation of animal genetic resources.’