Promoting the utilization of plant, animal and microbial genetic resources for research and development in biotechnology: evidence on researchers' preferences for specific attributes from Korean genebanks

The Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, was initially established by FAO, in 1983, to address plant genetic resources (PGR). It became the primary permanent international forum for governments to discuss, negotiate and decide on matters specifically relevant to genetic resources for food and agriculture (GRFA). Over time, the mandate of the Commission expanded and now it deals with all sectors of GRFA, plant, animal, forest, aquatic, and microbial and invertebrates genetic resources, covering the vast scope of biodiversity for food and agriculture. The Commission also considers a number of cross-cutting topics, including food security, nutrition and human health, mitigation of and adaptation to climate change, access to genetic resources and benefit sharing (ABS); as well as digital sequence information (DSI) on GRFA and biotechnologies for the characterization, sustainable use and conservation of GRFA. The work of the Commission on animal genetic resources (AnGR) initiated in 1997, resulted in preparation of the first-ever Report on the State of the World AnGR in 2007; and led to negotiation and adoption of the Global Plan of Action for AnGR (GPA) also in 2007. The endorsement of the GPA by the FAO Conference provided for commitments at the national level. The Commission monitors progress in the implementation of the GPA and status and trends of AnGR on a regular and biennial basis. Preparation of the Second State of the World Report on AnGR in 2015, further strengthened commitment to implement the 2007 GPA. The Commission plays an important role in supporting animal breeding and the livestock sector. It was instrumental in building the knowledge base on AnGR, creating a framework for action, and supporting measures for its implementation. It has overseen important initiatives, including preparation of various technical guidelines and building global awareness of the importance of AnGR as well as the specific characteristics of the AnGR sector. The work of the Commission is helping to ensure the conservation and sustainable utilization of GRFA, the genetic base for food production, thereby contributing to food security and agriculture development.

A preparatory action on the conservation and sustainable use of EU plant and animal genetic resources in agriculture and forestry was carried over a period of two years (2014-2016). Evidence was gathered through a variety of means in the context of the study. These included a mapping exercise of current activities and the stakeholders involved, a review of existing literature, over three hundred interviews with stakeholders and competent authorities, twenty-one case studies of good practices, and seven thematic workshops covering methodological issues. The findings of the study were shared with stakeholders and competent authorities across the EU28 during a conference which took place at the end of the preparatory action. The analysis highlighted the need to develop an agro-biodiversity strategy towards the conservation and sustainable use of genetic diversity in the EU, while considering issues specific to each of the four domains of the study: plant genetic resources, animal genetic resources, forestry genetic resources; and microbial and invertebrate genetic resources. Significant efforts have to be made by all stakeholders to secure an optimal conservation of genetic resources in the EU, and use these resources in a sustainable way in agriculture and forestry. This can be achieved through e.g. supporting partnerships and cooperation between stakeholders at all levels in the supply chain.

Valuing animal genetic resources: lessons from plant genetic resources

Institutionalizing Global Genetic Resource Commons: Towards Aternative Models for Facilitating Access in the Global Biodiversity Regime

The Need to Conserve Farm Animal Genetic Resources Through Community-Based Management in Africa: Should Policy Makers be Concerned?

For 100s of years, livestock producers have employed various types of selection to alter livestock populations. Current selection strategies are little different, except our technologies for selection have become more powerful. Genetic resources at the breed level have been in and out of favour over time. These resources are the raw materials used to manipulate populations, and therefore, they are critical to the past and future success of the livestock sector. With increasing ability to rapidly change genetic composition of livestock populations, the conservation of these genetic resources becomes more critical. Globally, awareness of the need to steward genetic resources has increased. A growing number of countries have embarked on large scale conservation efforts by using in situ, ex situ (gene banking), or both approaches. Gene banking efforts have substantially increased and data suggest that gene banks are successfully capturing genetic diversity for research or industry use. It is also noteworthy that both industry and the research community are utilizing gene bank holdings. As pressures grow to meet consumer demands and potential changes in production systems, the linkage between selection goals and genetic conservation will increase as a mechanism to facilitate continued livestock sector development.

Nutria (Myocastor coypus) is a large rodent native to South America which was introduced worldwide originally with the intention of fur farming. Three colour forms (Standard, Moravian Silver, and Prestice Multicolour) fall into the Farm Animal Genetic Resources of the Czech Republic protected by the National Programme on Conservation and Utilization of Plant, Animal and Microbial Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture coordinated by the National Focal Point. The objective of our investigation in the Czech Republic was to establish microsatellite panel for nutria and determine microsatellite variability in the local nutria population, levels of genetic diversity within and among subpopulations with respect to colour form and the levels of inbreeding within subpopulations. The genetic variability was studied in 64 animals by investigating 11 microsatellite markers (McoD214, McoD217, McoD59, McoD69, McoC124, McoC203, McoD60, McoB17, McoC118, McoA04, and McoD228) analysed by multicoloured capillary electrophoresis. The whole population showed a moderate level of genetic variability in terms of number of alleles (5 alleles per locus) or heterozygosity (50.4%) and the Prestice Multicolour form exhibited the highest level of diversity. Particular attention should be paid to organizing mate to minimise inbreeding, especially in the Standard colour form (F<sub>IS</sub> = 0.238) which showed the highest level of inbreeding out of the three colour forms. High combined exclusion probability (CEP) values (99.5, 94.5, and 99.9%) implied that the panel of microsatellite markers established in this study was usable for individual identification or routine parentage testing in nutria population in the Czech Republic.  

Plant genetic resources are an important component of biodiversity and provide the basic genetic variability that allow new and improved cultivars to be developed. Numerous germplasm collections have been established and it is important to established that such collections are representative and accessible to breeders and biotechnologists. Molecular markers provide the best estimate of genetic diversity since they are independent of the confounding effects of environmental factors. Assays based on the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) are considered to meet both the technical and genetical requirements for the characterisation of plant and animal genetic resources. Two main approaches are described, based on anonymous and defined primers. The use of both randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and microsatellites or simple sequence repeats (SSR) for the characterisation of perennial tree species, and distribution of variability within gene pools is reported. The detection of interspecific gene introgression between coffee species with RAPD markers is described together with the use of microsatellites to genotype potato. The use of PCR-based assays will facilitate the evaluation and utilisation of plant genetic resources.

The intensification of agriculture has led to remarkable changes in the utilization of agricultural genetic resources and many previously common breeds and varieties have become rare or even endangered (FAO 2007, 2010, Drucker, Gomez & Anderson 2001). In Finland, Eastern and Northern Finncattle, the Kainuu Grey Sheep and the Åland Sheep are endangered according to the FAO classification (FAO 2003) and, for example, majority of the old Finnish crop varieties and Finnish landrace pig are already extinct. Making informed decisions on the appropriate focus and extent of conservation of agricultural genetic resources requires information on both the costs and benefits of conservation. Economic analyses involving the valuation of conservation benefits can guide resource allocation of various types of genetic resources and conservation methods (Artuso 1998). The value of genetic resources is not typically revealed by markets, as they are not directly traded in the markets or the prices of agricultural products do not completely indicate their value (Oldfield 1989, Brown 1990, Drucker et al. 2001). Although the importance of economic analyses has been recognized, the literature on the monetary value of genetic resources in agriculture is relatively limited (see e.g. Evenson et al. 1998 and Rege and Gibson 2003, Ahtiainen & Pouta 2011). Currently the conservation policy of farm agricultural genetic resources in Finland is based on international agreements such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) and the Global Plan of Action for Animal Genetic resources (FAO 2007). National genetic resource programs were initiated for plants in 2003 and for farm animals in 2005 to strengthen the conservation of genetic resources in Finland. Although there has been some progress in the implementation of the programs, they have also suffered from shortage of funds and lack of political interest in conservation. To re-evaluate the conservation policy, there is a need to use valuation methods capable of estimating also the non-use value components of genetic resources, i.e. stated preference methods. The choice experiment (CE) method has been found suitable to valuing genetic resources due to its flexibility and ability to value the traits of breeds or varieties and their attributes. Choice experiment makes it possible to value benefits of both plant genetic resources (PGR) and animal genetic resources (AnGR). The terms refer to all cultivated plant species and varieties, as well as all animal species and breeds that are of interest in terms of food and agricultural production. The CE method can also be used to evaluate the means of conservation in situ (live animals and plants) and ex situ (as seeds, cryopreserved embryos and other genetic material). Previous choice experiments have focused on valuing breeds or varieties and their attributes, especially on attributes that are related to the use of the breed or variety in agriculture (Birol et al. 2006, Ouma et al. 2007). In this study we present the results of a choice experiment valuing the benefits of a genetic resource conservation program in Finland. We test the effect of in situ and ex situ conservation on citizen choices between programs. We also analyse whether the plant varieties and animal breeds are perceived equally valuable by citizen. As the conservation of agricultural genetic resources (AgGR) cannot be expected to be equally valuable to all citizens, we analyse the existence of citizen segments that value differently the conservation of genetic resources. We can assume that AgGR is a rather unknown good for some of the respondents of the valuation survey. However, in valuation surveys respondents are assumed to make “informed” choices when responding to value elicitation questions (e.g. Blomquist &Whitehead 1998). Therefore, we offered an opportunity for respondents to obtain further information on AgGR. In our case, the internet-based survey allowed us also to measure how much time respondents took in reading the information and responding to questions. Furthermore, we also measured response certainty and tested the effects of uncertainty and information as reasons for heterogeneity.

A future EU overall strategy for agriculture and forest genetic resources management: Finding consensus through policymakers’ participation

BANK OF ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES OF INSTITUTE OF ANIMALS BREEDING AND GENETICS ND. A. M.V.ZUBETS OF NAAS SYSTEM OF ANIMAL BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION OF UKRAINE

The paper highlights lessons learned over the last thirty years establishing a governance structure for the global crop commons that are of relevance to current champions of the microbial commons. It argues that the political, legal and biophysical situation in which microbial genetic resources (and their users) are located today are similar to the situation of plant genetic resources in the mid-1990s, before the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources was negotiated. Consequently, the paper suggests that it may be useful to look to the model of global network of ex situ plant genetic resources collections as a precedent to follow – even if only loosely – in developing an intergovernmentally endorsed legal substructure and governance framework for the microbial commons.

Our ancestors always considered plant genetic resources (PGR) to be the heritage of humankind and were of the opinion that this treasure would provide the foundation for attaining food, nutritional, and health security. Though evolution on Earth started over 3.5 billion years ago, it is with human interference, coupled with natural processes, that biodiversity has expanded. Human civilization is closely associated with the refinement of biodiversity. Looking to their day-to-day needs, humans started selecting plants from the available natural biodiversity. In ancient times, when men used to go hunting, it was women who developed the art of gathering and selecting plant species according to the needs of the family/society. Along with the advance of civilization, a natural evolutionary adjustment process took place in nature, of course aligned with human interference in different ecologies and changing environmental and biotic conditions. The resultant plant biodiversity was an irreplaceable resource and was the lifeline of humans, providing a sustainable ecosystem to meet the food, clothing, shelter, nutritional, and health requirements of the population. Among developing countries, India is considered as a cradle of agricultural biodiversity, known for its rich heritage of plant, animal, and fish genetic resources, as well as microorganisms, which constitute biodiversity. With 17% of the world’s population, only 4.0% of the world’s area, and 40% of its water bodies, India is considered to be one of the world’s 17 mega biodiversity countries, with 12 of the world’s mega-diversity centers, accounting for 7–8% of the world’s recorded species. India is also considered as a major center for the domestication of crop plants. Among the 34 biodiversity hot spots identified across the world—which are largely superimposed over the phyto-geographical regions—the Indian Gene Centre has three: the Western Himalayas, North-Eastern region, and Western Ghats. The Indian Gene Centre is divided into eight regions, including biodiversity-rich zones. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are rich treasure houses of agro-biodiversity and are connected with Indo-Burman, Indo-Malyasian, and Indo-Indonesian biodiversity. The Indian Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights (PPVF the country hosts about 49,000 species of flowering and nonflowering plants (18.8%), out of 260,000 described across the globe. India is rich in endemic plant species, which represent 33% of its flora. Within the spectrum of crop species and wild relatives, thousands of varieties, cultivars, landraces, and ecotypes occur in India. The country is known to have more than 18,000 species of higher plants, including 160 major and minor crop species and 325 wild relatives. Around 1500 wild edible plant species are widely exploited by native tribes. In addition, nearly 9500 plant species with ethno-botanical uses have been reported in the country, of which around 7500 are used for ethno-medical purposes and 3900 are edible species. Medicinal plants account for nearly 3000 species (India’s 4th national report to the Convention on Biological Diversity [CBD] 2009).

The Centre for Genetic Resources, (CGN) holds the mandate to conserve and promote the utilization of plant and animal genetic resources in the Netherlands. The genebank at the Plant Genetic Resources Group (PGR) of CGN maintains seed samples of 24,000 accessions of 25 horticultural and agricultural crops. Accessions are the units of the genebank and include cultivars, land varieties, research material and wild relatives of crop species. Information on the identity of the accession (e.g. passport data on origin, taxonomic classification and history), its traits (e.g. morphological, quality and disease resistance traits), as well as seed storage location and stock management is stored in the genebank documentation system.

The protection of genetic resources in agriculture is an important aspect of biodiversity conservation. Knowledge of the value of genetic resources can contribute to determining the appropriate focus and extent of conservation. This study reviewed and summarised literature on the economic value of genetic resources using meta-analysis. Altogether, 22 studies were used to describe current knowledge on the value of genetic resources. Furthermore, 14 studies with 93 value observations were examined with a meta-regression model to identify variables that explain the willingness-to-pay (WTP) for or willingness-to-accept (WTA) loss of genetic resources. Grain genetic resources were ascribed lower value compared to animal genetic resources (AnGR) and agrobiodiversity, and the values of breeds or varieties and conservation programmes were higher than the value of individual attributes. Future research should address the gaps in knowledge that are relevant for policy-making. This particularly includes improving knowledge on the value of plant genetic resources (PGR), obtaining value estimates for maintaining genetic diversity in Europe and the United States, estimating the relative magnitude of use and non-use values and determining the value consumers place on genetic resources and diversity in agriculture. An extensive database with valuation literature on genetic resources that fulfils the requirements for benefit transfer is essential to utilise value information more efficiently in decision-making situations.