Expression of Passive, Active, and Middle Voice in Central Languedocian

Abstract

As in the other Romance languages, the concept of passive voice can be expressed in modern Central Languedocian by means of an analytic construction, made from a conjugated form of the verb 'to be' plus a past participle. Use of this morphologically passive verb form is rare, however, in Central Languedocian, as in all dialects of modern Occitan. Instead, two other constructions with impersonal subjects are used: 1) third person plural verb forms with or without an impersonal subject, and 2) pronominal verbs. Of these, the second construction is found more commonly than the first. It is found with all transitive verbs (not just those marked [-animate] as in French), as well as with intransitive verbs. The pronominal verb may precede or follow a direct object and may agree in gender and number with that object. It may also agree in number with its real subject, when the agent, although indefinite or sometimes even unexpressed, is known to be plural and the verb is intransitive. Of particular interest is the apparent survival of a "middle voice" in Central Languedocian, an active, not passive voice, which is expressed by means of the pronominal construction in transitive verbs and which remains fossilized in a small group of intransitive verbs. The Occitan pronoun òm (corresponding morphologically to French on ) is personal, including the speaker, so verbs with this subject are active in voice. When the pronoun se is used in otherwise active constructions (i.e., with the subject pronoun òm ), it conveys a sense of vagueness with respect to the subject, which nevertheless includes the speaker, but does not change the active connotation of the verb.