Abstract
Tanker water is used extensively for drinking as well as domestic purposes in the Kathmandu Valley of Nepal. This study aimed to investigate water quality in terms of microbial contamination and determine sources of fecal pollution within these waters. Thirty-one samples from 17 tanker filling stations (TFSs) and 30 water tanker (WT) samples were collected during the dry and wet seasons of 2016. Escherichia coli was detected in 52% of the 31 TFS samples and even more frequently in WT samples. Of the six pathogenic viruses tested, enteroviruses, noroviruses of genogroup II (NoVs-GII), human adenoviruses (HAdVs), and group A rotaviruses were detected using quantitative PCR (qPCR) at 10, five, four, and two TFSs, respectively, whereas Aichi virus 1 and NoVs-GI were not detected at any sites. Index viruses, such as pepper mild mottle virus and tobacco mosaic virus, were detected using qPCR in 77% and 95% out of 22 samples, respectively, all of which were positive for at least one of the tested pathogenic viruses. At least one of the four human-associated markers tested (i.e., BacHum, HAdVs, and JC and BK polyomaviruses) was detected using qPCR in 39% of TFS samples. Ruminant-associated markers were detected at three stations, and pig- and chicken-associated markers were found at one station each of the suburbs. These findings indicate that water supplied by TFSs is generally of poor quality and should be improved, and proper management of WTs should be implemented.
Highlights
Kathmandu, the capital city of Nepal, faces a severe scarcity of water in terms of both quality and quantity [1,2,3,4]
Escherichia coli and total coliforms were detected in 52% and 87% of 31 tanker filling stations (TFSs) samples, respectively, and were more frequent in water tanker (WT) samples
pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV) and tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) were detected in 71% and 90% out of 31 TFS samples, respectively, whereas in WT samples, PMMoV and TMV were detected in 73% and 97% out of 30 samples, respectively
Summary
The capital city of Nepal, faces a severe scarcity of water in terms of both quality and quantity [1,2,3,4]. To meet daily requirements for domestic water, households in the valley are compelled to employ alternative water sources [5]. Pathogens 2019, 8, 81 shallow dug and deep tube wells, and stone spouts), jar water, tanker water, and surface water sources, such as springs and rivers. Water tankers play an important role in transporting large volumes of water abstracted from ground and surface sources to communities and households lacking the infrastructure or that are deprived of water sources [6,8,9,10]. The sources of tanker water in the valley range from surface water to shallow or deep borings, whereas the treatment procedures usually applied by TFSs vary from aeration, sedimentation and filtration (generally by pressurized sand filters), to use of bleaching powders [6].
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