Abstract
This study was conducted to evaluate the applicability of crAssphage, pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV), and tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) as indicators of the reduction of human enteric viruses during wastewater treatment. Thirty-nine samples were collected from three steps at a wastewater treatment plant (raw sewage, secondary-treated sewage, and final effluent) monthly for a 13-month period. In addition to the three indicator viruses, eight human enteric viruses [human adenoviruses, JC and BK polyomaviruses, Aichi virus 1 (AiV-1), enteroviruses, and noroviruses of genogroups I, II, and IV] were tested by quantitative PCR. Indicator viruses were consistently detected in the tested samples, except for a few final effluents for crAssphage and TMV. The mean concentrations of crAssphage were significantly higher than those of most tested viruses. The concentrations of crAssphage in raw sewage were positively correlated with the concentrations of all tested human enteric viruses (p <0.05), suggesting the applicability of crAssphage as a suitable indicator to estimate the concentrations of human enteric viruses in raw sewage. The reduction ratios of AiV-1 (1.8 ± 0.7 log10) were the lowest among the tested viruses, followed by TMV (2.0 ± 0.3 log10) and PMMoV (2.0 ± 0.4 log10). Our findings suggested that the use of not only AiV-1 and PMMoV but also TMV as indicators of reductions in viral levels can be applicable during wastewater treatment.
Highlights
This study was conducted to evaluate the applicability of crAssphage, pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV), and tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) as indicators of the reduction of human enteric viruses during wastewater treatment
Previous studies successfully demonstrated that several types of viruses, such as human adenoviruses (HuAdVs), polyomaviruses, enteroviruses (EVs), Aichi virus 1 (AiV-1), and pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV), can be used as potential indicators to illustrate the adequate reduction of viruses in wastewater[13,14,15]
Thirteen (100%) raw sewage, (85%) secondary-treated sewage, and (92%) final effluent samples were positive for at least one of the eight human enteric viruses tested
Summary
This study was conducted to evaluate the applicability of crAssphage, pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV), and tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) as indicators of the reduction of human enteric viruses during wastewater treatment. Infected individuals discharge millions of viral particles that enter sewage systems[7] In this context, it is important to study the efficiency of virus reduction at WWTPs to ascertain whether all viruses are removed from effluent samples or not. It is important to study the efficiency of virus reduction at WWTPs to ascertain whether all viruses are removed from effluent samples or not Fecal indicator bacteria, such as total coliforms and Escherichia coli, are not reliable indicators of the presence and removal of human enteric viruses during wastewater treatment[8,9]. Since the purpose of that study was to evaluate the applicalibity of crAssphage as a human-derived wastewater contamination marker, no discussion is provided regarding the suitability of crAssphage as an indicator of virus reductions during wastewater treatment
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