Counting on parents or others?

Background: In this contribution we critically appraise the social network indices in the Generations and Gender Survey (GGS). Objective: After discussing the rationale for including social network indices in the GGS, we provide descriptive information on social network characteristics and an overview of substantive questions that have been addressed using GGS social network data: antecedents and consequences of demographic behaviour, care, and differences in well-being. We identify topics that have received relatively little attention in GGS research so far, despite the availability of novel and appropriate social network data. We end with a discussion of what is unique about the social network indices in the GGS. Methods: The descriptive information on social network characteristics is based on empirical analyses of GGS data, and an experimental pilot study. The overview of GGS research using social network indices is based on a library search. The identification of what is unique about the social network indices in the GGS is based on a comparison with the European Quality of Life Survey (EQLS), the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement (SHARE), and the International Social Survey Program (ISSP). Results: Results show a high representation of family members in the social networks, and confirm the adequacy of using a cap of five names for network-generating questions. GGS research using the social network indices has largely focused on determinants of fertility behaviour, intergenerational linkages in families, and downward care transfers. Conclusions: Topics that have received relatively little attention are demographic behaviours other than those related to parenthood, upward transfers of practical support, ties with siblings, and stepfamily ties. Social network indices in the GGS show a high degree of overlap with those in other international surveys. The unique features are the inventory of family ties ever born and still living, and the assessment of network members’ normative expectations. The GGS holds a wealth of social network data that warrants a myriad of future investigations.

1. IntroductionThe Generations and Gender Survey (GGS), which is part of the Generations and Gender Programme (GGP), has been one of the most ambitious projects in Population Studies in the last decade. Its stated goal is to improve understanding of demographic and social development and of the factors that influence these developments (UNECE 2005). This requires elaborate survey design and implementation, resulting in a long and complex questionnaire. Previous research has shown that with increasing length and complexity, the probability of distortions in a survey rises. In this paper we focus on the German GGS, in which distortions appear in parts of the questionnaire which are complex, i.e., the retrospective parts on fertility and partnerships. There are various types of distortion: compared to German vital statistics the total number of children in the GGS is too low for birth cohorts 1930-1954 and too high for the cohorts born thereafter. When looking at partnership history we have too many women who were never married in our data in the older cohorts and too many married ones in the younger cohorts (Kreyenfeld et al. 2010; 2011; Kreyenfeld, Hornung, and Kubisch 2013; Sauer, Ruckdeschel, and Naderi 2012; Vergauwen et al. 2015). So far, approaches explaining these distortions have not provided satisfactory results. In this paper we try another approach by investigating if and under which conditions the complexity of the questionnaire could hinder the GGS improving the knowledge of the factors that influence demographic and social development. We investigate if the distortions in the German GGS can be explained by questionnaire design factors, interview situations, or other aspects of the implementation of the survey. In the following we especially assume that length, complexity, and structure of the GGS questionnaire are factors that affect respondents' as well as interviewers' behaviour and which offer advantageous conditions for shortening interviews by recording or giving incomplete or wrong answers.The paper is structured as follows: first, it presents a summary of the current state of research concerning possible causes of these distortions. Next, we describe the GGS questionnaire and the distortions in the German GGS in greater detail. Based on this, hypotheses are formulated concerning the nature and causes of the distortions in the GGS. Data and methods used as well as the results are presented in the subsequent sections. Finally, the conclusion suggests lessons for future surveys and provides advice for handling data from the German GGS in empirical analyses.2. Possible distortions due to survey implementationAfter discovering and identifying the distortions in the German GGS, different explanations have been posited, but with limited success. Kreyenfeld and her colleagues came to the conclusion that wording, question placement and technical problems do not seem to be the major sources of error leading to the bias in the fertility (Kreyenfeld, Hornung, and Kubisch 2013: 20). A paper by Sauer, Ruckdeschel, and Naderi (2012) instead concluded that the complexity of the retrospective histories could be a main source of distortion. In this paper we will elaborate upon this aspect.The literature on sources of distortion in surveys covers a wide range of topics, such as the characteristics of the event itself (saliency of event), respondent characteristics, and survey design (Blasius and Thiessen 2012). The design of the questionnaire is a decisive factor in the accuracy of answers, as is the interview situation. In this context most approaches explain interviewers' and interviewees' response behaviour and social desirability by rational choice theory (e.g., Stocke 2004, 2007). This also applies to the description and explanation of possible distortions in the German GGS, where rational choice theory offers a useful approach (e.g., Esser 1985, 1990; Tourangeau, Rips, and Rasinski 2000). …

Background: Fertility intentions provide a reliable measure of future fertility behaviour. By looking into fertility intentions, we can figure out if people are thinking about becoming parents and how many kids they might be considering. Additionally, the role of perceived health has not entered the debate about fertility. Aims: This study aims, probably for the first time, to compare the fertility intentions of migrants and non-migrants of the same nationality at origin based on their self-rated health and well-being. Methods: The study utilized data from the Families of Poles in the Netherlands (FPN) survey and the Generations and Gender Survey (GGS). This study used Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition models and generalized ordered logit models (gologit). Results: The findings reveal that both migrants and non-migrants who have good self-rated health and well-being are more likely to express a desire to have children in the short term. Additionally, the average fertility intentions score is higher for Polish migrants residing in the Netherlands compared to Polish non-migrants residing in Poland across the models. The study emphasizes the role good perceived health plays in shaping fertility intentions. Conclusion: It is encouraged that future research to consider perceived health in the demographic debate about migrant and non-migrant fertility.

Although the literature concerning the association between religiosity and fertility in European countries is already quite extensive, studies exploring the mechanisms of action of religiosity are rare. The main aim of this article is to investigate whether grandparental childcare is a mediating or moderating variable in the association between attendance at religious services and the intention to have a second or third child. Building on previous literature, we assume that parents who are more religious might put more effort into establishing a positive relation with the grandparents of their child/children. Consequently, compared to parents who are less religious, those who are more religious could be more receptive to possible encouragement from grandparents to have another child and may be more optimistic regarding grandparents’ involvement with an additional child. Using Generations and Gender Survey (GGS) data for eleven European countries, we find evidence of a strong and positive effect of attendance at religious services on fertility intentions. Receipt of regular or weekly help from grandparents positively moderates the association between attendance at religious services and fertility intentions, albeit only for male respondents and mainly for the intention to have a second child.

Family systems, as normative frameworks in which family processes unfold, are believed to exert a major influence on fertility. While a number of studies have addressed family system effects on family size and the timing of births, the question of how family systems influence fertility intentions has remained largely unexplored. Because fertility intentions are often not realized, studying the pathways through which these intentions are framed warrants further attention. Addressing this research gap, this paper explores the pathways of influence between family systems and people's intentions to start or to extend their family in the framework of the theory of planned Behaviour. We use a path analysis to analyse data from the Generations and Gender Survey (GGS) on fertility intentions of 28,988 individuals from nine European countries that considerably vary in family systems. Regional indicators of family systems were constructed on the basis the Survey of Health, Aging and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) and incorporated in the analytical sample. The results demonstrate an important link between family systems and fertility intentions. Family systems frame people's intentions by influencing their attitudes towards children and their ideas about existing norms regarding fertility. This influence works partly through affecting household size and partly through influencing people's ideas about the requirements for having children. Family system effects vary between intentions to start and to extend a family. While nearness to kin decreased positive attitudes towards having children of childless respondents, having kin nearby had the opposite effect for those that were already parents.

Fertility intentions and perceived health status: A study of Polish migrants and non-migrants

Large-scale survey data is widely used to study the intention to have a(nother) child. However, there are further opportunities to understand how these intentions are revised over the life course and the uncertainty surrounding them. We aim to further outline the importance of simultaneously considering change and uncertainty in fertility decision-making. Specifically, we identify uncertainty in the “probably not” and “probably yes” responses to questions on whether an individual intends to have a(nother) child, and compare the differences in individuals’ stated intention between survey waves. Using panel data from the Generations and Gender Survey (GGS) for Austria, France, Hungary, Italy, and Poland, we study short-term followed by long-term (overall) fertility intentions. First, descriptive analyses compare and visualise the prevalence of uncertainty intentions at first and second wave using Sankey diagrams. Next, multivariate analyses on transitions in intentions focus on partnership and employment context. The results reveal that for both short-term and overall intentions, four in ten respondents are uncertain about intending a (further) child. Further, one in two report a different intention between waves, with changes mainly occurring from one “probably” response to another (e.g., “probably not” to “probably yes”) or through a shift in increasing or lessening certainty (e.g., “probably yes” to “definitely yes”). The childless exhibit by far the greatest uncertainty and revision. Multivariate analyses show that partnership and employment are associated with gradual transitions and larger changes in intentions. Our results also show that fertility intentions form to a large extent along a spectrum of certainty—from “definitely not,” to “probably not,” to “probably yes,” to “definitely yes,” and finally to the birth of a child.

The Generations and Gender Survey (GGS) is a panel study on families, life course trajectories and gender relations. The GGS is part of the Generations and Gender Programme (GGP), a unique research infrastructure providing open access data to registered researchers. We will be focusing on the GGS waves that were already collected. With large samples per country, the GGS microdata provides researchers with a key resource to examine changes in family life, inter-generational and gender relations. The analysis of these trends is at the core of the research produced in several social science disciplines and the GGS data users have extensively used it to better understand topics such as the transition to adulthood, partnership formation and dissolution, fertility, gender roles and caring responsibilities. In the first part of this study profile, we focus on the design features of the GGS (data collection and adjustment, panel maintenance, and coverage) and subsequently we provide an overview of the organisational setup and outputs of the GGP. In the last part we reflect on the opportunities and challenges ahead of the next round of data collection.

Previous research has demonstrated a positive association between gender equality in the family and fertility measures. However, this association may vary when different features of gender equality in the family, such as the division of housework and childcare, are analyzed. Furthermore, it has been argued that individuals may have different perceptions regarding housework and childcare, which can further explain how the division of these activities is associated with fertility outcomes. We performed a microlevel investigation of the association between the division of housework and childcare and fertility intentions with the aim of identifying patterns (or their absence) in the association. We hypothesized that a more equitable division of tasks is associated with increased fertility intentions. We used data from the first round of the Generations and Gender Survey (GGS) in ten countries: Germany, Belgium, Austria, France, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Russia, Bulgaria, and Georgia. Our samples included individuals who were in heterosexual relationships and had one child. We employed binary logistic regression for analysis. Overall, our findings suggested that a more equitable division of housework was associated with an increased likelihood of intending to have a second child. Conversely, a less equitable division of childcare was associated with a decreased likelihood of intending to have a second child. Owing to the discussion of the diverse perceptions that individuals may hold regarding housework and childcare, this study contributes to the literature by proposing a theoretical explanation for the patterns observed in our results. The results align with those of previous studies indicating that childcare is generally viewed as enjoyable and rewarding, whereas housework tends to be negatively evaluated and linked to perceptions of unfairness and inequality. Consequently, a more equitable division of housework may reduce work‒family conflict and potentially be associated with increased fertility intentions. In contrast, if childcare is perceived as fulfilling, engaging in more childcare activities may lead to increased fairness rather than unfairness, leading to the association between less equal division of childcare and increased fertility intentions.

BackgroundPersistently low fertility in the European Union has drawn attention to the gap between desired and intended fertility, often linked to enduring gender inequalities. Clarifying how individual, partner, and contextual factors jointly shape short-term fertility intentions can inform policy across diverse gender regimes. Objective: To examine short-term fertility intentions among partnered individuals in Finland, Germany, and Spain, representing Scandinavian, Continental, and Mediterranean gender regimes, respectively.MethodsWe use harmonized data from the Generations and Gender Survey (GGS) and Spain’s National Institute of Statistics (INE). We apply Classification and Regression Trees (CART) to capture non-linear interactions among individual, partner, and contextual factors (including employment status, caregiving responsibilities, and gender values), and to identify profiles associated with higher vs. lower short-term intentions to have a child.ResultsFamily size, caregiving burdens, and economic stability emerge as central determinants of fertility intentions, with marked gendered and contextual differences across countries. Patterns are particularly pronounced among individuals with no children or one child, where combinations of stable employment and lower caregiving loads align with higher intentions, while economic insecurity and heavier (gendered) care burdens depress intentions. CART uncovers country-specific thresholds and configurations consistent with each gender regime.ConclusionShort-term fertility intentions reflect unmet gender-mediated needs and serve as an early indicator of latent potential for social and political mobilization. Our findings highlight the influence of gender regimes on reproductive decision-making and support policies that address structural inequalities, especially in employment and care, to enable the realization of reproductive desires across heterogeneous socioeconomic contexts.

The Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) and the Generations and Gender Survey (GGS) are two widely used European longitudinal surveys with data on socio-demographic and health topics, but their comparability has not been systematically investigated. We compared SHARE and GGS data for 50–80 year olds in seven European countries (Belgium, Estonia, France, Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands and Poland) to assess data quality and the potential for joint analyses. The results showed that information on age, gender, marriage and fertility patterns and the corresponding distributions were broadly similar in both sources. For some countries, distributions by educational level varied between the two sources even though both reported using the same International Standard Classification of Education, which may reflect variations in the timings of surveys. The differences also observed for estimates of the prevalence of poor health might come from the wording of health questions and their placement in the questionnaire that sometimes differed between the surveys. We investigated what effect these variations might have on analyses of health inequalities by undertaking multivariable analysis of associations between education and marital status and two standard health indicators: self-reported health (SHR) and long-standing illness (LSI). Abstract: L’enquete sur la sante, le vieillissement et la retraite en Europe (SHARE) et l’enquete Generations et genre (GGS) sont deux etudes longitudinales europeennes largement utilisees portant sur des sujets sociodemographiques et sanitaires. Toutefois, leur comparabilite n’a pas ete examinee de maniere systematique. Cet article compare les enquetes SHARE et GGS pour les individus âges de 50 a 80 ans dans sept pays europeens (Allemagne, Belgique, Estonie, France, Hongrie, Pays-Bas et Pologne) afin d’evaluer la qualite de leurs donnees et les possibilites d’analyses conjointes. L’information et la repartition par âge, sexe, mariage et niveau de fecondite sont similaires dans les deux sources. Pour certains pays, des differences existent dans la repartition des niveaux d’education bien que les deux enquetes utilisent la meme classification internationale, ce qui est peut-etre du a des differences dans le calendrier des enquetes. Des ecarts sont egalement observes pour l’etat de sante, probablement en lien avec la formulation des questions sur la sante et leurs places differentes dans le questionnaire selon les enquetes. Nous etudions les inegalites de sante par niveau d’instruction et par statut conjugal en menant des analyses multivariees sur deux indicateurs de sante courants : la sante autoevaluee (SAE) et les affections de longue duree (ALD). Abstract: La encuesta sobre la salud, el envejecimiento y la jubilacion (SHARE) y la encuesta Generaciones y genero (GGS) son dos estudios longitudinales europeos ampliamente utilizados. Aquellas tratan de cuestiones socio-demograficas y sanitarias, pero su comparabilidad no ha sido examinada de manera sistematica. Este articulo compara las dos encuestas para los individuos de 50 a 80 anos en siete paises europeos (Alemania, Belgica, Estonia, Francia, Hungria, Paises Bajos y Polonia) a fin de evaluar la calidad de sus datos y las posibilidades de analisis conjuntos. Los resultados muestran que la informacion recolectada y la reparticion por edad, sexo, estado matrimonial asi como el nivel de fecundidad son similares en las dos fuentes. Bien que las dos encuestas utilizan la misma clasificacion internacional, se observan diferencias entre ciertos paises en el nivel de educacion quiza a causa de la diferencia de calendario entre las dos encuestas. Se observan tambien diferencias en el estado de salud, asociadas probablemente a variaciones en la formulacion de las preguntas sobre la salud y al lugar que ocupan estas en el cuestionario. Hemos estudiado las desigualdades de salud segun el nivel de instruccion y el estatuto conyugal con analisis multivariantes sobre dos indicadores de salud corrientes: la salud autoevaluada (SAE) y las afecciones de larga duracion (ALD).

Background: The Generations and Gender Survey (GGS) was developed to stimulate the study of a broad range of topics of relevance to population scientists. So far, at least one wave of the GGS has been conducted in 19 countries. If scholars want to use the GGS for comparative purposes, it is essential that there be cross-national equivalence in terms of survey implementation and representativeness. Objective: The two main goals are (1) to describe the main features of the implementation of the GGS in participating countries, and (2) to describe and evaluate the quality of the data collection of the GGS in terms of its cross-sectional representativeness. Methods: We use weighted and unweighted GGS data for 18 countries and compare this to country-specific information. Results: The quality of sampling and fieldwork procedures of the GGS is generally good. On average, response rates in the GGS are comparable to those in other cross-national surveys. After weighting, the data are generally representative in terms of age, gender, region, and household size, but less so for marital status and educational attainment. Implications for future waves of the GGS are discussed.

Large-scale survey data is widely used to study the intention to have a(nother) child. However, there are further opportunities to understand how these intentions are revised over the life course and the uncertainty surrounding them. We aim to further outline the importance of simultaneously considering change and uncertainty in fertility decision-making. Specifically, we identify uncertainty in the “probably not” and “probably yes” responses to questions on whether an individual intends to have a(nother) child, and compare the differences in individuals’ stated intention between survey waves. Using panel data from the Generations and Gender Survey (GGS) for Austria, France, Hungary, Italy, and Poland, we study short-term followed by long-term (overall) fertility intentions. First, descriptive analyses compare and visualise the prevalence of uncertainty intentions at first and second wave using Sankey diagrams. Next, multivariate analyses on transitions in intentions focus on partnership and employment context. The results reveal that for both short-term and overall intentions, four in ten respondents are uncertain about intending a (further) child. Further, one in two report a different intention between waves, with changes mainly occurring from one “probably” response to another (e.g., “probably not” to “probably yes”) or through a shift in increasing or lessening certainty (e.g., “probably yes” to “definitely yes”). The childless exhibit by far the greatest uncertainty and revision. Multivariate analyses show that partnership and employment are associated with changes and transitions in intentions. Our results also show that fertility intentions form along a spectrum of certainty—from “definitely not,” to “probably not,” to “probably yes,” to “definitely yes,” and finally to the birth of a child.

This study investigates the relationship between childcare usage and parents’ intentions to have a second child in Belarus. Previous research has established that low fertility in Belarus can be primarily explained by falling second birth rates. However, a substantial research gap remains regarding the determinants of the low rate of second childbearing in Belarus. Based on a comprehensive review of hypothesised fertility barriers and family policy options in Belarus, this study leverages data from the Belarusian Generations and Gender Survey (GGS) from 2017 to examine the relationship between formal, informal, and mixed childcare usage and parents’ intention to have a second child. The analysis is based on fertile individuals aged 18–45 who have a partner and one biological child under 11 years old (i.e., up to the age at which children leave primary school). The model controls for sex, age, education, respondents’ economic wellbeing, the employment status of both partners, and the age of their child. Applying logistic regression, the analysis demonstrates that mixed childcare support increases respondents’ intentions to have an additional child. Having a child aged 3–6 years, being below 26 years old and male, are also associated with a higher likelihood of intentions to have a second child. No association was found between economic wellbeing or employment status and second‐parity fertility intentions. The results of this study suggest that gender‐egalitarian family policy instruments that improve institutional childcare and that incentivise men to participate in childcare could reduce barriers to second childbearing in Belarus.

The study of fertility intentions has gained importance in the literature during the last decades. Nevertheless, research focussing on their realisation is still scarce due to limited availability of longitudinal data. Although a bulk of existing studies demonstrated regional variation and rural-urban differences in fertility, respective differences in the realisation of fertility intentions have not been addressed in prior research. We address this shortcoming by analysing the realisation of short-term fertility intentions in Vienna and Budapest as opposed to the remaining parts of Austria and Hungary, using two waves of the Generations and Gender Survey (GGS). Results clearly demonstrate that those two capitals are different: Although short-term childbearing intentions are very similar in capitals and other parts of the countries, probabilities of realisation are lower in capitals. These differences in realisation are at least partly explained by individual characteristics of inhabitants. There are, however, also factors that affect realisation differently in metropolitan than in less populated regions.