Abstract

The need for electrical energy storage technologies (EEST) in a future energy system, based on volatile renewable energy sources is widely accepted. The still open question is which technology should be used, in particular in such applications where the implementation of different storage technologies would be possible. In this study, eight different EEST were analysed. The comparative life cycle assessment focused on the storage of electrical excess energy from a renewable energy power plant. The considered EEST were lead-acid, lithium-ion, sodium-sulphur, vanadium redox flow and stationary second-life batteries. In addition, two power-to-gas plants storing synthetic natural gas and hydrogen in the gas grid and a new underwater compressed air energy storage were analysed. The material footprint was determined by calculating the raw material input RMI and the total material requirement TMR and the carbon footprint by calculating the global warming impact GWI. All indicators were normalised per energy fed-out based on a unified energy fed-in. The results show that the second-life battery has the lowest greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and material use, followed by the lithium-ion battery and the underwater compressed air energy storage. Therefore, these three technologies are preferred options compared to the remaining five technologies with respect to the underlying assumptions of the study. The production phase accounts for the highest share of GHG emissions and material use for nearly all EEST. The results of a sensitivity analysis show that lifetime and storage capacity have a comparable high influence on the footprints. The GHG emissions and the material use of the power-to-gas technologies, the vanadium redox flow battery as well as the underwater compressed air energy storage decline strongly with increased storage capacity.

Highlights

  • In the German energy system, renewable energy sources have substantially expanded their leading position in the electricity mix and the future growth will mainly be in the solar and wind power areas [1]

  • As electrical energy generated by photovoltaic cells and wind power plants fluctuates due to its dependence on weather conditions, the use of electrical energy storage technologies (EEST) is an important aspect of the German Energiewende

  • The global warming impact (GWI) of the vanadium redox flow battery (VRF-B) is reduced by 19.6% and of 7.5 the compressed air energy storage (CA-S)

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Summary

Introduction

In the German energy system, renewable energy sources have substantially expanded their leading position in the electricity mix and the future growth will mainly be in the solar and wind power areas [1]. As electrical energy generated by photovoltaic cells and wind power plants fluctuates due to its dependence on weather conditions, the use of electrical energy storage technologies (EEST) is an important aspect of the German Energiewende. Energies 2018, 11, 3386 long-term energy storage in Germany [4]. Since this target shall be achieved before 2050, research on EEST is of growing importance in order to optimize efficiency and to exploit their development potentials [5]

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