Chapter 4 - Varieties of Empathy-Based Guilt

Abstract

Empathy is a feeling more appropriate for someone else's condition than one's own; one's feeling may match the other's but not necessarily. There are at least five modes of arousal of empathic distress. Three are primitive, automatic, and most important, involuntary: First, reflexive newborn's crying at the sound of another's cry. Second mimicry, which has two steps: the observer spontaneously imitates the victim's facial, vocal, and postural expression of feeling; the resulting changes in the observer's facial and postural musculature then trigger afferent feedback which produces feelings that match the feelings of the victim. Third classical conditioning and direct association of cues in the victim's situation that remind observers of similar experiences in their own past and evoke feelings in them that fit the victim's situation. Further two empathy-arousing models involve higher-order cognitive processes: first, mediated association and second role taking. A comprehensive prosocial, empathy-based moral theory encompasses at least five types of moral encounters: First, innocent bystander: one witnesses someone in pain, danger, or distress. Second, transgressor: one has harmed someone, or is about to act in a way that may harm someone. Third, virtual transgressor: one is innocent but feels oneself a transgressor. Fourth, multiple-claimant: an extended bystander model in which one witnesses two or more victims or potential victims but cannot help them all and must make a choice. Fifth, caring versus justice: one must choose between acting in accord with a caring principle or a justice principle when the two are in conflict.