"Caput mundi": Rome as Center in Roman Representation and Construction of Space

The relation between Italian Fascism and the myth of romanita appears at first sight deceptively uncomplicated. From its early days as a radical movement the Fascists deployed a language that borrowed heavily from, and hinted at, the Roman past. Although the relationship between the early Fascist movement and Rome was fraught with contradictions (on the one hand, admiration for the values of the ancient Roman Empire; on the other hand, profound disdain for the city’s recent state of perceived political and moral decadence — see Ch. 1), the movement that Mussolini officially founded in 1919 paid the most emphatic tribute to the Roman past in its title and official emblem. Its first name (Fasci di Combattimento) invoked the imagery of the Roman fasces — a symbol made up of a bundle of wooden rods with a protruding axe that was carried by a special group of official protectors of the magistrates in ancient Rome (lictores) as a sign of unity, sovereign authority, and military might (Consolato 2006: 189). In modern times, the symbol had been widely used by a number of radical organisations, ranging from French revolutionaries in the eighteenth century to peasant organisations in Sicily to labour groupings of the socialist left in the nineteenth century (Giardina and Vauchez 2000: 224–7). Thus, for Mussolini the use of the word and emblem of the fasces exemplified two fundamental ideological facets of the fledgling movement: on the one hand, its derivation from the political and military traditions of the Roman Empire that it subsequently claimed to incarnate; on the other hand, its physiognomy as a radical revolutionary movement charting a new political path that identified its roots in a dissident synthesis of left radicalism and hyper-nationalism (Sternhell 1994: 1–7).

This paper deals with digital modeling, reconstruction and visualization of urban landscapes, especially with the City of Rome. A new model is presented here: the landscape(t)-model. I will give a short summary of current attempts to model, reconstruct and visualize (ancient) Rome or parts of the City. A short overview on the development of digital spatio-temporal methods, especially on databases and technology of geographic information systems (GIS) is given to see the differences between conventional methods and my object-oriented approach concerning the landscape(t)-model. Apart from this I will present some other research questions and current subjects in geography like resources (urban mining) and sustainability in urban spaces, where geographers, archaeologists, historians and scholars from many other disciplines can work together in a very fruitful way. A central question in that research will be: what can we learn from the past for future developments? Such research needs an interdisciplinary, integrative approach with special attention to the human impact on cityscapes and the integration of archaeological and historical evidence.

This article examines the shifting geo-political significance of Hangzhou as presented in two local gazetteers dating from the Southern Song dynasty (1127–1276). Focusing on literary works quoted in both of these gazetteers that describe two of Hangzhou’s famous halls on West Lake, I argue that geographic discourses on these halls manifest a tension between two conflicting presentations of Hangzhou’s geo-political significance as understood by literati elite of the Southern Song. In writings concerning the Hall of Possessing Beauty (Youmei tang 有美堂), Hangzhou was viewed as a city of rising economic and cultural importance during the Northern Song. Writings on the Hall of Centrality and Harmony (Zhonghe tang 中和堂), in contrast, depict Hangzhou as an imperial refuge for a court in flight and associate it with the motif of territorial loss during the Southern Song when the city became the dynastic capital. By examining how these two views of Hangzhou are contrasted, this essay concludes that gazetteers functioned to grade and rank different kinds of landscapes in order to make geo-political arguments about the proper reconstitution of the empire during the Southern Song.

In China 1935 was known as 'the year of Nora' with Ibsen's A Doll House (often re-titled as Nora) being produced in major cities throughout the country. An unknown actress, Li Yunhe, who had come to Shanghai and changed her name to Lan Ping, played the title character, Nora, at the invitation of a left-wing theatre company. The success of Nora not only launched Lan Ping from obscurity to fame overnight, but enabled her to explore the new territory of the film industry. Several years later, she changed her name again, this time to Jiang Qing and shortly became Madam Mao, a role that most people remember her. From 1935 to 1937 , reports about Lan Ping, often accompanied by photographs, frequently appeared in the theatre sections of newspapers and film magazines. The photographs of Lan Ping as herself invariably present a modern woman, confident and yet attractive, a symbolic Chinese Nora. This image of Jiang may surprise those who know her only as Madam Mao through the photos taken of her in the Yan'an period (1937-1947 ), in the 1950s, and during the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976). By tracing Lan Ping/Jiang Qing's photographic metamorphosis, this article examines different discourses of ideal womanhood as conveyed by presentations of the female body in the pre-Mao period and in Mao's China. Be they the May-Fourth intellectuals, Left-wing intellectuals, or leaders in the Chinese Communist Party, Chinese thinkers of all stripes imagined modernity and their new nation through the female body, and thus set out to become arbiters of women's public style, in such matters as hairstyle and clothes. What to wear and how to wear could demonstrate whether a woman was advanced in thinking and embodied a proper attitude towards new gender role. In addition to examining the gender performance of Lan Ping/Jiang Qing in three important periods, this article exposes the paradox of the male-constructed gender discourses by exploring how the criticism she met with is deeply rooted in patriarchal conceptions of gender. Finally, this article looks at how Lan Ping/Jiang Qing, rather than being a passive object of gender discourses, to varying degrees participated in and manipulated the construction of contemporary gender discourses.

Ancient Rome, that served during the Risorgimento to cement a precarious national unity, played several roles under the Fascist regime. At first, it was the symbol of the Fascist Revolution, Caesar being the key figure. Later, along the years of consensus, Augustus, the appeaser, was privileged. To that period belongs the identification between August, the founder of the ancient empire, with Mussolini, the founder of the new empire. Finally, in the late 1930s, the celebration of the new empire put off the old one. This article reviews the traces of those three periods in present Rome.

The present work encompasses an analysis of Claudius’ activities in the provinces of the western Empire in order to get an idea of his political attitude in a broader context and see how his interests in the provinces influence the urban works. The first aim of the project is to find structures, urban development and changes in the cities which are directly connected to Claudius. The second goal is a reflection on planning issues and strategies adopted by the emperor. In particular It was conducted a comprehensive examination of new buildings or additions to prior ones (with statues for example) and the underlying intentions as well as how and in which way the prototypes in Italy influenced the construction in the provinces. The last aim is connected to Venturi’s work who deals with his activities in Italy and in particular at Rome and Ravenna. I retrieve if the trends found by Venturi are applicable also in the provinces and I try to find new ones as well which can explain his political actions.

Urban housing spatial structure can be viewed as the substantial expression of urban development history. The housing spatial structure of Guangzhou city is typical in that it lies on the front of opening zone and, furthermore, it is one of the three largest cities in China. Basing on the housing data of Guangzhou's 5th Census, the paper employs factor and cluster methods to analyze 5 key factors taking from 40 variables of 77 sub-districts (F70%). They are housing constructed years, housing sources, kitchen equipments, toilet equipments and housing floors. The results of the factor scores help to divide the houses in urban built-up area of Guangzhou city into four types with different features: Ⅰ) Pre-establishment Housing Area (in which houses constructed before the founding of P. R. China); Ⅱ) Government Welfare Housing Area (Ⅱa: in which houses constructed for public servant from the time of the founding of P. R. China to the Reform and Opening) and Enterprise Welfare Housing Area (Ⅱb: in which houses constructed for people serving public owned enterprises from the time of the founding of P. R. China to the Reform and Opening); Ⅲ) 1980s Housing Area (houses with relatively rough equipment constructed during the 1980s); Ⅳ) 1990s Housing Area, in which Commercial Houses (Ⅳa) and Privately Constructed Houses (Ⅳb) centralized. The results can be used to explain the formation mechanism of Guangzhou's housing spatial structure. 1) As a result of Guangzhou's development, housing spatial structure turns on concentric circles from inside to outside. The quality of houses in the former urban area (inside circles) is poorer than that in the outer because they are the origin of the city. Some underdeveloped villages were surrounded by built-up area with urban expansion, while some of them were developed apart from the urban. 2) City planning distorted the concentric circle structure. 3) City reconstruction changed the homogeneous situation of the former urban area. 4) Although the housing reform institute changed houses' tenure, their public-owned attribute has not been broken. 5) Outskirts of the city become the hot area of real estate development, which result in the highest ratio of commercial housing in the outside of the built-up area. As a conclusion, the paper deduces the structure mode of housing spatial structure in the large cities of China: The Pre-establishment Housing Area normally lies in the inner circle. The second circle is the Welfare Housing Area. The Commercial Housing Area mainly centralized in the 3rd circle, which surrounds those relatively underdeveloped villages originally far from urban built-up area and some special function area constructed in the culture and education areas in the 1980s. The broad suburban housing area and industrial area together formed the 4th circle.

This thesis is a conceptual and empirical exploration of the links between women's gendered position and their reproductive health in Pakistan. A growing body of literature seeks to identify the relationship between gender inequality and women's reproductive health, most commonly their contraceptive use and fertility. However, to-date findings have been mixed and we lack a coherent picture of how these two aspects of women's well-being are related. This thesis illustrates that the focus on female autonomy, which is central to much of the discourse concerning gender and reproductive health in South Asia, is inappropriate to this cultural setting. An alternative framework for conceptualizing and measuring women's gendered position is presented in an attempt to further our understanding of the determinants of reproductive health. The study uses an integrated analysis of quantitative and qualitative data. The Pakistan Fertility and Family Planning Survey (1996-97) data show important socio-demographic and contextual differentials in women's mobility, decision-making, control over financial resources, communication with husband, exposure to information and health knowledge. Relationships between different measures of women's gendered position and reproductive health outcomes are shown to be varied, with only joint decision-making, communication with husband, and health knowledge having positive associations with both contraceptive and antenatal care use. A detailed ethnographic study of a Punjabi village reveals kinship structures based on an ideology of akhathe (jointness), and social networks and inter-personal relationships as the primary route to resources of all kinds. Women's interests are intricately linked with their family's well-being. They aspire to be mazboot (strongly connected) members of their families rather than autonomous individuals. The qualitative data inform the interpretation of the quantitative associations and suggest ways in which measures of women's gendered position can be refined. Both fertility control and pregnancy are shown to be highly gendered processes. However, an unexpectedly high contraceptive use rate, and the emergence of antenatal care use, are found in the absence of accompanying shifts in gender ideology. In such a context, the 'centrality' approach is suggested as a valid and sensitive way of conceptual ising women's gendered position in Pakistan. This approach incorporates the kinship and social structures and suggests women's mazbooti as a more acceptable and realisable goal for improving women's reproductive health and well being.

Since the year of 1606, on the immense dome's retaining ring in St. Peter's in Rome, there is one of the Western world's largest inscriptions. The aesthetic impact of the colossal blue letters on a golden background is overwhelming. It is a spectacular example of colossal epigraphy in one of the Europe of those times most public places, made in the classical Roman imperial and early-Christian medium of mosaic. It is ”language in architecture”, the language being that of the Western Church, at the same time the international language of Europe in Early Modern Times, which is Latin. The inscription reads: TU ES PETRUS ET SUPER HANC PETRAM AEDIFICABO ECCLESIAM MEAM…TIBI DABO CLAVES REGNI COELI…”And I tell you that you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of Hades will not overcome it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven…”The words are from the Bible, more precisely from the Gospel of St. Matthew. There, Jesus says them to Simon Peter, the elected amongst the twelve Apostles. Those are the founding words of Church and Papacy. In St. Peter's, however, they are taken out of their original context. They run around the vast dome of Michelangelo's cupola. Their new context, then, produces a new function and role, a new impact, and a new meaning: addressing Peter as if he were present, they mark his hidden tomb under the cupola. They denote the hidden body of the fisherman and Apostle from Galilea who by the middle of the first century had come to Rome from the Eastern parts of the Empire, he, Peter, the first Pope, of whom tradition said that he had been crucified here and had been buried on the Vatican hill. They denote that place under the dome where there had been the centre of an immense cult of his tomb from the second century onwards, that place which in the fourth century Constantine made the centre of a gigantic imperial basilica, even before towards the end of the century Christendom would rise to the status of state religion of the Roman Empire; that place, which Bramante made the centre of his radical new planning of New St. Peter's and which finally was crowned by Michelangelo's cupola.The words of the inscription are not only addressed to the historical Peter. Papacy is not a dynasty. From the fifth century onwards its theory follows a legal ”figura” of Roman law: Each Pope is the direct successor, that is the direct universal heir of Saint Peter. Hence, as ritual provides, at the beginning of every Papal Mass, when the Pope approaches the altar over Saint Peter's tomb, the words ”Tu es Petrus” are intoned.The colossal inscription addressing the historical Peter and every single one of his successors was unveiled in 1606. At the same time, its existence reflects one of the deepest breaks in the history of Western civilisation. In 1606 the words ”Tu es Petrus” are not least polemical. They are directed against Protestantism which does not share the belief in Peter, for which the Pope is not the head of the Church, for which Jesus with the words ”Tu es Petrus” did not found the papacy - against Protestantism vehemently opposing the cult of Saint Peter's tomb and his relics.This historical situation of the year 1606 is the starting point of my paper entitled ”The Role and Impact of the Word in Post-Reformation Christian Art” which on the case of the inscriptions of St. Peter's intends to exemplify the themes of this conference, namely ”Art”, ”Ritual”, ”Religion”, ”Material Culture” and ”Spiritual Beliefs” and their interaction at the time.

The subject of this edition is a forgotten 17th-century Polonicum: a Latin panegyric in hexameter by Antonio Querenghi entitled Ad urbem Romam in adventu Serenissimi Vladislai, Poloniae Principis (To the city of Rome on the occasion of the arrival of His Most Serene Highness Vladislaus, the Prince of Poland). The work, published in 1625 in Rome, was noted in bibliographies of S. Ciampi and K. Estreicher as anonymous. This is because the only copy known of the first edition until recently, preserved in the holdings of Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan, was deprived of the title page. The discovery of a second, complete copy in the collection of Biblioteca Casanatense in Rome allowed us to identify the author, namely the Padovan humanist Antonio Querenghi (1546-1633), who from 1605 served as the pope’s personal secretary (cubicularius), prelate and referendary of both signatures. The closest relation Querengi developed with Maffeo Barberini (Urban VIII), the “pope-Cicero” and patron of poets and artists, at whose side he stayed until his own death. On 19 January 1625 he graced with his panegyric the Roman visit of Prince Vladislaus Vasa, the later King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania Vladislaus IV. The prince arrived in Rome on 20 December 1624, after an eight-month journey around Europe. Vladislaus, who tried to travel incognito, was received with all the honour due to the successor to the Swedish throne with the title of electi Magni Ducis Moschoviae (the elected Grand Duke of Muscovy). In the minds of the inhabitants of Europe, his person was also inextricably associated with the double triumph over the “schismatic” Muscovy, and above all with fending off Turks at the battle of Chocim (2 September–9 October 1621). Vladislaus spent the fortnight from 20 December 1624 to 2 January 1625 in the papal capital and took part in the celebration of the Jubilee. On 17 January he arrived there again after a short trip to Naples and left the city after only three days. Yet it was the latter short stay in Rome that the grandest reception in honour of the Polish Prince was held. On Sunday, 19 January, after a private audience with Pope Urban, at which only the closest curial dignitaries (with Querenghi probably among them) and officials from Vladislaus’ retinue were present, a sumptuous dinner was given with a concert afterwards. In the panegyric written for this occasion, Querenghi praises Vladislaus’ triumphs over “Muscovy twice defeated” (he meant armed attempts of the prince to the tsarist throne in the years 1610-1619) and over “the Thracian (i.e. Turkish) enemy”, the army of sultan Osman II. The ideological pivot of the poem is the pope’s planned general military expedition against Turkey: Urban VIII anoints the Polish Prince as the commander in chief of the upcoming crusade and a defender of Christianity. Vladislaus appears to be a new Hercules choosing the difficult path of Virtue, filled with renunciations and leading to eternal fame. In the panegyric apostrophe, the poet appeals to the Christian prince to follow the example of the mythical hero by taming the “godless monsters” (monstra impia) and taking upon his shoulders the weight of the world resting theretofore on the shoulders of the Italian Atlas – Pope Urban. Ad urbem Romam constitutes an excellent example of Querenghi’s stylistic manner shaped in the neo-Platonist spirit of hermetism, which made the poet create labyrinthine and enigmatic texts for the exclusive use of a narrow circle of exegetes. This manner resulted in a discrepancy, starkly visible through the refined hexameters, between two irreconcilable textual (and thus essentially linguistic) facts, one arising from historic discourse and the other generated within conventionally antiquisating, petrified, panegyric hyperbole. Namely, between Vladislaus who, abashed, retreated from Muscow and spent the battle of Chocim sick in his own tent, and the new Hercules who puts to rout the schismatic-pagan monsters threatening the Western civilisation.

Latin, whose origins reach back to the Proto-Indo-European language, pervaded the European culture beginning with the Roman times and its influence continues until the modern era. It arose in its primal form in Latium on the Apennine Peninsula and it continued to develop together with the Roman Empire; it was subject to the influence of other cultures, particularly in the sphere of the spoken language. It was also during Roman times that literary Latin was created, but around that time another variety of Latin as spoken by the lower social classes was also born; this division exerted an immense impact on the evolution of Latin and the derivative European languages in the Middle Ages and in the modern era. Classical Latin was popularized in Europe chiefly by the Church; it functioned as a language of instruction at universities and it became the language of communication of both men of the world of learning and men of the law. In the Middle Ages Latin became rejuvenated, subjected to various modifications, including a process of regionalization. The Renaissance brought about a return to the classical variety of Latin and a desire to purify it from the accretions of the Middle Ages. Latin remained to be very much alive in the era of the Enlightenment, yet it also began to lose its significance in relation to national languages. The origins of legal Latin which initially was not only a technical language, reach back to the writings of Roman jurists. Initially legal language relied heavily on real-life social and economic relations. Yet already in ancient Rome, abstract concepts had been used in Latin and the nomenclature of legal institutions was evolving. This process continued throughout the mediaeval times. A good example of an outstanding expert on Latin in Poland was Wincenty Kadlubek. In Poland Latin had been a universal language, particularly in the sphere of the judicial system. This was combined at the same time with the progressing Latinization of the Polish legal language. Dictionaries were yet another important aspect of the functioning of Latin – in Poland they began to be published in the 14th century. Translations of legal texts into Polish, beginning with the translations of the Statutes of King Kazimierz Wielki, were also popular in mediaeval Poland. Such translations are also a common practice today – the directive which bids to use Latinized forms of technical terms, rather than their Polish translations which are often descriptive and resort to neologisms, seems to be quite justifiable. Though rarely used and hermetic, Latin seems to persist and is waiting to be rediscovered.

Examination of Mo Yan's novels led to a realization that psychic trauma of varying degrees is prevalent in his writings. In response to this, this paper begins by discussing historical violence as an underlying cause of psychic trauma. Historical violence here refers specifically to the discourse of violence emerged from Fascist aesthetics and manifested in the rhetorical expressions of Mao Zedong during the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution. At that time, the discourse of violence rose as a prominent, if not the only, form of historical discourse. Such dominance was found to have long-lasting impacts on Mo Yan's novels as well. Then, this paper adopts a psychoanalytic approach to examine the distinguishing feminine features that characterize Mo Yan's novels. The constant association of feminine traits with consumption, excretion, and sex sheds light on the writer's unconscious fear and apprehension toward these impulses. His attempt to repress the feminine elements is also evident by the implementation of another equally powerful symbolic mechanism throughout his novels. In addition to the feminine imagery of consumption, excretion, and sex, Mo Yan's novels are filled with the rhetoric of masculinity, purity, and violence, all of which are core to Fascist Aesthetics. This phenomenon indicates that the dominant historical discourse in the past fails to fully represent the symbolic system of social order in the new period. While Mo Yan is using the above-mentioned method to repair memory, he is also triggering the historical trauma stemmed from the previous experience of violence and rejection. It actually exhibits a distinctive emotional state in the new period literature.

In mid-18th century Giovanni Battista Piranesi’s etchings systematically document the old and new monuments, decrepit buildings and broken down infrastructures of a Rome that continues to inhabit and reinvent its past. His views of Rome offer a devastating account of the blurring of distinctions and articulations that time, use and neglect have imposed on the old differentiations of the urban and the rural, the public and the private, the monumental and the domestic in the 18th century city. Rome becomes for Piranesi the laboratory for a questioning of architecture that places his work well beyond the debate on style and on the origin that dominated the architectural discourse of his time. This paper suggests that Piranesi’s images anticipate the dispersion and sprawl of the city of today, in which the ‘ vague ’, the ‘viral’ and the ‘parasitic’ become modes of inhabitation and of transient negotiated definition. In the Antichita di Roma , ancient buildings are represented not only in their large scale and magnificence, but also in their decay and reversal to a state of naturalness. These works, together with the acute observations of the Vedute di Roma , provide the materials that are then dislocated, manipulated, cloned and endlessly mutated by Piranesi in the synthesis of the Campo Marzio dell’Antica Roma , in which the historical city is almost entirely dissolved and replaced by an extraordinary congestion of fragments. When they are re-examined on the grounds of contemporary architectural and urban theory, the sites of Piranesi's views reveal anticipations of phenomena that affect the metropolis of today. Political, social and economic conditions have changed dramatically, but the questions asked of architecture in and by these sites challenge the definition of an architecture of style, forms and boundaries – in the 18th century as well as in the 21st – in favour of an architecture of change.

The aim of this study is to understand how literature reflects and contributes to the politics of identity. This study is not a history of Oriya literature, nor does it deal with the process of gradual crystallization of Oriya political identity. This research is based on the assumption that creative literature projects a collective identity of a people and sustains a dominant discourse on the society that it writes about. Further, it supports the assumption that a narrative, apart from performing the symbolic act of creating and reproducing social cohesion, is a specific mechanism through which the collective consciousness of a society often represses its historical contradictions. Since this work is based on literary sources, it discussed the processes through which creative writers make sense of the world around them and represent this world to their readership. The evolution of the identity of a region is rarely a linear development, or the subject of a simple, homogeneous construction. Any invocation of identity is fraught with internal tensions and contestations. Different groups of people within the same region often question the validity of a particular construction of their identity, claiming that it represents only one aspect of reality and not others. But the theme of identity is constantly invoked in the context of a nation's formation, to emphasise national and cultural differences with other nations. In the context of a modem nation, this construction of identity is deeply involved in the interpretations of the nation's past. The first chapter of this thesis discussed the political conditions under which the Oriya speaking tracts of the British empire demanded unification, leading to the emergence of Orissa as a separate province in 1936. This was the first time when the Oriya people felt the need to articulate an identity of a modem kind. This chapter is divided into three sections which discuss the coming of modernity to Orissa and the social transformations that followed. It also analyses the colonial missionary and Bengali discourses on the nature of Oriya society, and the first stages of the Oriya constructions of the self. The second chapter discusses literary writing and articulation of Oriya by a group of writers closely associated with the national movement from 1920 onwards. They articulated new meanings that helped constitute a picture of Oriyaness. Their emphasis was on raising an all-India consciousness among the Oriyas but the symbols of mobilisation were strictly Oriya. The third chapters discusses the slow disenchantment of Oriya writers with the coming of modernity, and the consequent rise of a discourse that was nostalgic about the Oriya past. Identity was closely linked to the questions of social morality in this phase. Matters and aspects of everyday lives - like the nature of the traditional social formation, social relations among different groups, the joint family, the image of women - were the given a new status as 'tradition' and presented as crucial to an Oriya identity. This chapter deals with the literary expression of the frustration that various social groups, rural Oriyas, tribal or women experienced with the coining of change. It discusses an identity crisis of Oriya society reflected in literature of the decades following the twenties. The fourth chapter discusses the connection of Left writing with the problem of identity formation. What was described as 'quintessentially Oriya' was questioned and rejected by leftist intellectuals. Radical literature created a set of 'alternative' Oriya heroes, and provided an alternative reading of what was valuable in society and its historical past. Deeply critical of the earlier construction of Oriyaness, the leftwing writers questioned the validity of the elitist construction of the Oriya self In the cultural self-construction of Oriya identity, the figure of Jagannath, the deity of the temple at Puri, has always enjoyed a special place. The fifth chapter turns to a discussion of Jagannath as the 'national god' of Orissa and its centrality to any reading of Oriyaness. The chapter analyses the changing relations between modernity and religion. It seeks to show the historical process by which a traditional religious symbol retained its cultural significance in a modem definition of a society's identity.

In the first century BCE, most of the world’s Jews — perhaps as many as 8 000 000 (Baron, 1952, I 170; 1971: 871) — came into the net of Roman conquest as the empire expanded to become the largest and most powerful in ancient history. Only a minority of Jews lived in the kingdom of Judaea, conquered by Rome in 63 BCE and formally annexed in 6 CE. Except for about seven years of revolt, in 66–70 and 132–5 CE, Judaea remained under Roman rule for half a millennium, until the fall of the empire. Both conquest and annexation warned of Judaea’s tragic future: in 63 BCE Pompey, commander of the victorious Roman army, entered the Holy of Holies in the Temple — forbidden to all but the Jewish High Priest on Yom Kippur — giving lasting insult to the Jews; and in 6 CE a census for tax-assessment was made in Judaea, leading to unrest and violence.