Book Review. A New Insight into Theory of Conceptual Metaphor

Reviewed by: Metaphor in cognitive linguistics: Selected papers from the Fifth International Cognitive Linguistics Conference, Amsterdam, July 1997 ed. by Raymond W. Gibbs, Jr., Gerard J. Steen Kenneth A. McElhanon Metaphor in cognitive linguistics: Selected papers from the Fifth International Cognitive Linguistics Conference, Amsterdam, July 1997. Ed. by Raymond W. Gibbs, Jr. and Gerard J. Steen. (Amsterdam studies in the theory and history of linguistic science. Series IV-Current issues in linguistic theory, 175.) Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1999. Pp. viii, 225. $72.00. The book consists of eleven diverse articles on metaphor. Noteworthy articles include Iraide Ibarretxe-Antuñano’s [End Page 605] ‘Metaphorical mappings in the sense of smell’, which rejects suggestions that the sense of smell is mapped metaphorically and proposes a process of property selection within an inherent structure that is similar to the concept of radial structure. Joseph E. Grady, Todd Oakley, and Seana Coulson (‘Blending and metaphor’) argue that conceptual metaphor theory (CMT) and conceptual blending theory (BT) represent complementary approaches that differ mainly in (1) the number of mental representations each allows (CMT—two, BT—more than two); (2) basic unit of cognitive organization (CMT—semantic domain, BT—mental spaces as scenarios structured by given domains); (3) strict directionality (CMT—yes, BT—no); and (4) the kinds of relationships they posit between mental representations (CMT—entrenched and conventional, BT—short-lived and novel). They propose a principle of BT, that a blend is based upon particular connections within the network of input spaces not upon a systematic mapping of one domain onto another. Noticeably absent, however, is a consideration of whether or not such mental spaces are grounded in ICMs (Idealized Cognitive Models) and, if so, how the ICMs might frame the scenes and contribute encyclopedic knowledge. Gerard Steen, ‘From linguistic to conceptual metaphor in five steps’, attempts to develop a procedure for identifying conceptual metaphors in discourse. The primary task of the linguist who wishes to describe and explain the structure and function of language is metaphor analysis, not metaphor understanding—a purely cognitive process. Nevertheless, his procedures are very much grounded in understanding inasmuch as metaphor identification ‘is fundamentally a matter of conceptual analysis’, and an ‘analysis . . . lays bare how metaphors can differ from each other with respect to important dimensions of conceptual structure’ (64–65). The proposed methodology seems complex, perhaps because it is bound to a theory that requires a propositional analysis of literal and nonliteral meaning and is designed to assist an analyst who is apparently not a native speaker of the language under analysis. Joseph E. Grady, ‘A typology of motivation for conceptual metaphor: Correlation vs. resemblance’, explores systematic analyses of conventional and novel metaphorical expressions to discover ‘primary metaphors’, those fundamental, experientially motivated metaphors which serve as the basis for further mappings. Grady suggests two distinct classes of metaphors which differ in terms of directionality, ontology, and conventionality: One is based upon resemblance (rather than similiarity) and the other upon correlation. Four papers address the relationship between cultural metaphors and cultural models and claim that cognition is inextricably culturally-based. Raymond Gibbs, ‘Taking metaphor out of our heads and putting it into the cultural world’, suggests that metaphorical mappings are grounded in embodied behavior which in turn is connected with cultural experience. Zoltán Kövesecs, “Metaphor: Does it constitute or reflect cultural models?’, claims that basic experiences select the appropriate, simple, generic cultural metaphors that constitute the cultural models that structure abstract concepts. Alan Cienki, ‘Metaphors and cultural models as profiles and bases’, adopts Ronald Langacker’s base-profile model and claims that metaphors are profiled against cultural models. Michele Emanation, ‘Congruence by degree: On the relation between metaphor and cultural models’, suggests that a scale of congruence may be useful in accounting for the varying relationships between cultural models and conceptual metaphors. Kenneth A. McElhanon Summer Institute of Linguistics Copyright © 2002 Linguistic Society of America

This entry presents a cognitive linguistic view of figurative language, with a focus on conceptual metaphor theory (CMT), which distinguishes between conceptual and linguistic metaphors. Conceptual metaphors are concepts linked by metaphorical mappings in our conceptual systems whereas linguistic metaphors manifest metaphorical conceptual mappings in our language. Conceptual metaphors also form hierarchical systems, with primary metaphors at a higher, more schematic level and complex metaphors at a lower, more specific level. Complex metaphors may often be decomposed into primary metaphors in combination with literal cultural beliefs. Conceptual metaphors are grounded in both bodily and cultural experiences, and the interaction between body and culture gives rise to specific metaphors in a particular language and culture.

The Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) established the pervasiveness of metaphor in thought and language and provided evidence that metaphor is, in fact, deeply embedded in our conceptual system. Contrary to the original claim that conceptual metaphors are largely universal, in almost four decades after its inception, the CMT researchers including George Lakoff and Mark Johnson have advanced the idea of cultural influence on metaphorical conceptualisation. In recent years, the trend in metaphor research has been to study how metaphor behaves in naturally occurring discourse. It is in this context that the current study explores conceptual metaphors in India's rich cultural context. The main objectives of the current study are, (i) to examine conceptual metaphors of womanhood found in English literary works set in India's three culturally diverse linguistic regions, and (ii) to compare and contrast them across literary works of the three regions.�The data of linguistic metaphors was collected from 21 literary works, seven in each linguistic region. This data was tested for metaphoricity using the Metaphor Identification Procedure, Vrije University, Amsterdam (MIPVU) developed by the PRAGGLEJAZ Group, after which it was analysed using the CMT. The CMT enabled the identification of the source domain used in each linguistic metaphor and subsequently, the uncovering of conceptual metaphors through the establishment of cross-domain mappings between the source and target domains. The framework of the Cognitive Dimension of Metaphor Variation by Zoltan K?vecses has been used to analyse the metaphors for similarities and variations across the three regions. The Great Chain of Being metaphor or the GCB model has guided the understanding of the negative and positive conceptualisation of the metaphors of womanhood.�The analysis revealed that a total of 30 source domains have been utilised by the authors across the three regions. Of these, 21 in the Indo-Aryan, 27 in the Dravidian and 23 source domains in Tibeto-Burmese literary works. Of these, the source domains, ANIMALS, OBJECTS, SUPERNATURAL ENTITIES, PLANTS, and ELEMENTS OF NATURE are the most frequently used. The source domain, ANIMALS tops in the aggregate with approximately 25% of total metaphors across the three regions conceptualising women in terms of animals. The next most frequently used source domain is OBJECTS with 22% of the total metaphors conceptualising women in terms of objects.�In terms of the target domains of womanhood, the Indo-Aryan works focus more on the conceptualisation of motherhood, the Dravidian works focus more on the conceptualisation of wifehood and metaphors found in the Tibeto-Burmese literary works focus more on the women's physical attributes and beauty. Lastly, the conceptualisation of womanhood in the Indo-Aryan and Dravidian literary works is more negative than positive, with the negative conceptualisation of womanhood being the higher in the Dravidian literary works. In the Tibeto-Burmese literary works, the percentage of positive and negative metaphors was found to be proportionate. The main implication of this research is that it is the first comprehensive study of literary metaphors ever conducted. The study analysed 708 linguistic metaphors of womanhood from 21 literary works across India.

This study is entitled (Analysis of the idioms of (head) in Kurdish language, from the perspective of cognitive linguistics). Language is one of the most important human achievements and occupies a large space in human life. Therefore, since the ancient times, humans have paid attention to it and tried to understand its secrets. Idioms are an important part of any language, and studying them helps us to understand the relationship between idioms and metaphors. The school of cognitive linguistics looks at idioms differently from all other linguistic schools. Other linguistic schools have studied the syntactic, semantic and pragmatic aspects of idioms and viewed them as fixed and inseparable structures and expressions. However, the cognitive linguists have a completely different view; they see idioms as conceptual metaphors and interpret every conceptual metaphor in terms of the conceptual matching and interaction between the source and target fields. Our study is an interpretation of the idioms of (head) from the school of cognitive linguistics’ perspective, in light of the theory of conceptual metaphor, the interpretation of idioms has been conducted. In general, the study consists of the introduction, two chapters, the results and the list of references. The first chapter discusses the perception of both schools of ancient and cognitive linguistics for idioms as well as the theory of conceptual metaphor, types of conceptual metaphors and metaphorical interaction between the source and target fields. In the second chapter, the idioms of (head) have been analyzed according to the theory of conceptual metaphor, followed by the results and a list of references.

In this paper, four conceptual metaphors very frequently used in the Montenegrin language are analyzed. These are conceptual metaphors: <i>Negotiation is Boxing Match, Stone is Weak, Bad, Low-Quality, Humorous is Bloody and Capital is a Woman (During Intercourse, with an Intention for Procreation)</i>. The mentioned conceptual metaphors have entered the focus of our scientific interest because they reveal some very important facts about the Montenegrin mentality. We can say that these facts are immanent to the way of thinking of the average resident of Montenegro to the extent that they are firmly woven into the linguistic expression. These conceptual metaphors can be found in all functional styles of the Montenegrin language, and, most importantly, they are most often used in everyday language. The conceptual metaphors we deal with in this paper, however, are not only related to the way of thinking of the inhabitants of Montenegro, but are, potentially, also part of the universal way of functioning of the human mind. In the explication of the mentioned conceptual metaphors, we will apply the methodology of cognitive linguistics, and above all, we will focus on the theory of conceptual metaphor. The literature on the phenomenon of conceptual metaphor in contemporary world and domestic linguistics is extremely large and diverse. In our research and theoretical foundation of the concept of conceptual metaphor, we will start, of course, from the now classic book by Lakoff and Johnson "Metaphors We Live By", and then we will add to this classical study in the continuation of the paper the insights that individual (cognitive) linguists have gained about conceptual metaphor in the last twenty years.

This paper reviews some of the central insights on metaphor that come from the domain of cognitive linguistics and originate, for the most part, from the conceptual metaphor theory in its standard version. The review focuses upon the nature, origin, function, components, systematicity and types of metaphor, and upon metaphorical meaning; lays a special emphasis upon the mapping mechanism of metaphor; contrasts metaphor to metonymy and addresses the interaction and overlap of these. A large portion of this paper is a review on the issue of metaphorical creativity. Metaphorical creativity is, to the best of my knowledge, a little-studied topic in cognitive linguistics. There are some claims concerning metaphorical creativity in the review that might appear rigid, decisive and conclusive, but they are definitely not intended as such. Research on metaphorical creativity is still being launched, and numerous aspects of creative metaphorical concepts remain undisclosed so far. This, on the one hand, is reflected in the at times cursory nature of my review and, on the other, indicates a need for further investigations. In my review, I cite literature with a fundamental standing in the cognitive linguistic field mainly. The literature selection for this paper is ultimately shaped by my affiliation with the cognitive linguistic community and by my ambition to eventually formulate a conceptualization of metaphor and of creative metaphor that would lend these to computation. I introspect and comment on some of the assumptions and claims that the literature puts forward. In the review are Modern English metaphorical expressions that come from the cited literature, or are prompted by my own research and introspection; these data help support or, though scarcely, challenge the assumptions and claims. In prospect, this paper will grow into a larger-scale research on the issue of metaphorical creativity. The review might have implications for cognitive linguistic theorizing and research, and be of particular purpose for Ukrainian cognitive linguists aiming their research at the international, in particular European, scholarly community.

This article is devoted to the problem of the study of metaphor in Cognitive Linguistics, the conceptual theory of metaphor. The article deals with the works of such research scientists as Earl McCormack, G.Lakoff and M.Johnson, as well as Raymond W.Gibbs Jr., Dedra Gentner, Brian Bowdle, Lynn Cameron, Gilles Fauconier, Michael J. Reddy, David Pantner and others. Definitions are given for two types of metaphors: orientational and ontological metaphors. The article also discusses such aspects as conceptual mapping or conceptual matching, there are three types of this mapping. The article also touches upon the levels of the metaphorical, cognitive process. The conceptual theory of metaphor is well represented in the books by G.Lakoff and M.Johnson «Metaphors we live by». The article also provides examples of conceptual metaphors. The main function of metaphor is its cognitive aspect, the function of obtaining new knowledge. Metaphor in the aspect of cognitive linguistics is considered through the prism of the conceptual theory of metaphor. Metaphorical thinking is inherent not only to modern man, but from time immemorial, metaphor has been skillfully used in the everyday habitual way of life of a person. Conceptual metaphor in the aspect of cognitive linguistics is one of the main cognitive operations, a way of thinking, understanding, cognition, perception and interpretation of the environment around us. This is the transition of experience, information, knowledge about one semantic area to another semantic area.

This chapter reviews conceptual metaphor theory with a focus on one aspect that is also especially characteristic of the present study—its systematicity in metaphor research. It traces conceptual metaphor theory’s developmental trajectory as a systematic approach to metaphor in language and cognition. The systematicity of conceptual metaphor theory stems from its distinction between conceptual metaphor and linguistic metaphor, its adoption of frame and subframe in the analysis, its conception of metaphor inheritance hierarchies, its differentiation between primary metaphor and complex metaphor, and its extended version that proposes a multilevel view of metaphor, with image schema, domain, frame, and mental space as different levels of metaphorical mappings ranging from the most schematic to the most specific.

In traditional rhetoric, metaphor is simply a rhetorical device used to make the mentioned things more understandable. It was not until 1980 that two cognitive linguists, George Lakoff and Mark Johnson (1980) argued in Metaphors We Live By that the essence of metaphor is the cognitive mechanism by which abstract things are explained through concrete things, shifting the study of metaphor from the linguistic level to the cognitive level. Later on, Lakoff (1996) analyzed political metaphor from a cognitive perspective for the first time in Moral Politics, which drives the upsurge of research on conceptual metaphor in political discourse. Political discourse usually uses metaphor to conceptualize the political ideas and issues it aims to disseminate, and the use of conceptual metaphor is closely related to national culture, so the translation of conceptual metaphor has become the key to the overseas publicity of political discourse. On March 5, 2023, Premier Li Keqiang delivered Chinese Government Work Report at the opening meeting of the first session of the 14th National People&amp;rsquo;s Congress. After reading the official translation on www.china.org.cn, the authors find that the Report contains a wealth of conceptual metaphors, and whether the translation of these metaphors is appropriate or not will affect the accuracy of people&amp;rsquo;s understanding of the Report. Based on Lakoff and Johnson&amp;rsquo;s (1980) conceptual metaphor theory and Group&amp;rsquo;s (2007) metaphor identification procedure, this paper takes the 2023 Chinese Government Work Report and its English translation version on www.china.org.cn as the research corpus. Through manual screening, classification and statistics of conceptual metaphors, this paper explores ten types of conceptual metaphor models, namely human metaphor, journey metaphor, war metaphor, cultural metaphor, architecture metaphor, water metaphor, animal and plant metaphor, machine metaphor, line metaphor as well as object metaphor. Based on Xiao&amp;rsquo;s (2005) cognitive strategy of metaphor translation, this paper also analyzes the translation of ten types of conceptual metaphors. This paper attempts to explore the following three research questions: (1) What are the types of metaphorical patterns in the Report? (2) How are the conceptual metaphors used in the Report and what cultural connotations and images are conveyed by them? (3) How to effectively translate conceptual metaphors in the Report to achieve a better understanding of the target audience? Microsoft Office (Word and Excel) is used as a statistical tool and a mapping tool to count specific conceptual metaphor categories and record typical metaphor keywords, and visualize the data of the proportion of various types. This paper tries to summarize and analyze the cultural connotations and images conveyed by the conceptual metaphors, so as to provide help for the English translation of Chinese political discourse and promote the international dissemination of Chinese political ideas. Through the analysis of conceptual metaphors, we can judge that although the political concepts in the Report is abstract, conceptual metaphors can express them more concretely and more easily understood by the audience through the mapping from the source domain to the target domain.

How does conceptual metaphor theory handle mixed metaphors? Several metaphor scholars argue that mixed metaphor is a phenomenon that conceptual metaphor theory cannot handle. Their argument is that, given the claims of conceptual metaphor theory, mixed metaphors should not occur at all. This is because once a conceptual metaphor is activated in discourse by means of a linguistic metaphor, that conceptual metaphor should lead to and support the use of further linguistic examples of the same conceptual metaphor. However, in real discourse, the argument goes, most metaphors are mixed, which indicates that conceptual metaphors are not activated and thus do not lead to further consistent linguistic metaphors of the same conceptual metaphor. In the paper, I will argue that the idea of the production of consistent and homogeneous linguistic examples does not necessarily follow from conceptual metaphor theory and that, as a matter of fact, the opposite is the case: given conceptual metaphor theory, we should expect the use of mixed metaphors in natural discourse.

The study explores the conceptual metaphor of "MEDIA AS A TRAP" in Vietnamese and English, aiming to understand perceptions of media in these linguistic contexts. Using the theory of conceptual metaphor in cognitive linguistics, alongside descriptive and semantic analysis methods, the research establishes and analyzes the mapping from the source domain of "TRAP" to the target domain of "MEDIA." By examining metaphorical expressions in press texts, the study uncovers underlying cognitive models, including media as trickery and media as a scam. Survey data reveals similar frequencies of metaphorical expressions in both languages, with 110 instances in Vietnamese and 90 in English, indicating a shared understanding of the metaphor. The analysis highlights significant parallels and distinctions in the conceptual metaphor "MEDIA IS A TRAP" between Vietnamese and English, underscoring its universal cognitive and linguistic significance. Both languages employ similar conceptual metaphorical expressions, yet exhibit subtle differences reflecting distinct cultural perspectives.

Subject of Study. The subject of our research is metaphor and conceptual metaphor. We begin the study with Aristotle’s metaphorical concept in order to see how much meaning from formal linguistics is initially inherent in metaphor and what potential for the development of its metaphysical and conceptual components. Metaphor in linguistic philosophical discourse is interpreted accordingly. We turned to several theories of metaphor, namely: analytical philosophy with several author theories. We also analyzed theories of metaphor from cognitive linguistics discourse. As a result, we focused our research on conceptual metaphor as a structure that most adequately reflects scientific and philosophical meanings. A conceptual metaphor is a structure that begins to form from the thought process and then continues in language, science, and everyday life. Purpose. The purpose of our research is to study linguistic, philosophical, cognitive theories of metaphor. The study of nature, semantics, and symbolic expression of a metaphor should show the true meaning and conceptualize the metaphor. As a result, we want to interpret metaphor as a structure of human consciousness and the thought process, which, after thinking, structure language, everyday life, and science. The structure combines a concept and a metaphor and is called a conceptual metaphor. Method. Our research methods are based on several methods of analytical philosophy, structural linguistics (aspects of synchrony and diachrony), cognitive linguistics, formal theory, and interactionism. We also use a comparative analysis of two discourses, namely analytic philosophy and. Conclusion. We conclude that Aristotle’s metaphorical theory contains the potential for a more detailed interpretation of metaphor in analytical philosophy and cognitive linguistics. As a result, of the study, we can draw several conclusions. Metaphor has gone through the process of actualizing its significance from literature and rhetoric, in which it acted as an artistic trope, according to Aristotle’s Poetics, to a structure that organizes the thought process, language, everyday life, science, and philosophy. As a result, we interpret metaphor in the terminology of cognitive linguistics as a structure of human consciousness and the thought process, which, after thinking, structure language, science, everyday life, has a concept and metaphysics in its composition and is called a conceptual metaphor.

In this article, the author analyzes the conceptual metaphors politics is a pond, a politician is a carp and a politician is a pike in Czech political discourse. The investigation is based on the theory of conceptual metaphor and follows the principles of ethnolinguistics and cognitive linguistics. The author shows how the specific features of these conceptual metaphors relate to the Czech linguistic worldview and proposes metaphorical mapping that conveys salient features of the target domain (politics and politicians). The conceptual metaphor politics is a pond helps the speaker to depict a problematic domestic political situation that needs to be changed. The metaphors a politician is a carp and a politician is a pike are usually used to create the “friend-foe” opposition in political discourse. The conceptual metaphor a politician is a carp discloses the passivity and laziness of politicians and their inability or unwillingness to change the current situation. On the other hand, the conceptual metaphor a politician is a pike can be used to indicate both the positive qualities of a politician (activity, energy, initiative) and the negative ones (greed, selfishness, cruelty). The use of culturally specific conceptual metaphors allows a politician to establish close contact with the audience to increase the number of loyal voters.

Why cognitive linguistics requires embodied realism MARK JOHNSON and GEORGE LAKOFF In our book Metaphors We Live By (1980), we presented evidence that taking the existence of conceptual metaphor seriously would require a massive rethinking of many foundational assumptions in the Western philosophical tradition concerning meaning, conceptualization, reason, knowledge, truth, and language. In the twenty years between that book and Philosophy in the Flesh (1999), a mushrooming body of additional empirical evidence from linguistics, psychology, cognitive neuroscience, and anthropology became available, which not only reinforced our original claims about the pervasive, constitutive nature of conceptual metaphor, but also revealed implications for traditional philosophy that were even more devastating than we at first imagined. What we saw, especially in light of sweeping, rapid developments in cognitive neuroscience, was that meaning is grounded in our sensorimotor experience and that this embodied meaning was extended, via imaginative mechanisms such as conceptual metaphor, metonymy, radial categories, and various forms of conceptual blending, to shape abstract conceptu- alization and reasoning. What the empirical evidence suggests to us is that an embodied account of syntax, semantics, pragmatics, and value is absolutely necessary for an adequate understanding of human cognition and language. You cannot simply peel off a theory of conceptual metaphor from its grounding in embodied meaning and thought. You cannot give an adequate account of conceptual metaphor and other imaginative structures of understanding without recognizing some form of embodied realism. The reasons are discussed at length in Philosophy in the Flesh (1999: chapters 3, 4, and appendix). As Grady (1997) and Johnson (1997) have ( jointly) observed, there is a system of hundreds of primary conceptual metaphors that we all learn by the age of four or earlier on the basis of ‘‘conflations’’ in our experience—cases where source and target domains are coactive in our experience. For example, verticality and quantity are coactive whenever we pour juice into a glass or pile up objects. Cognitive Linguistics 13–3 (2002), 245–263 # Walter de Gruyter - 10.1515/cogl.2002.016 Downloaded from PubFactory at 08/07/2016 11:26:38PM via University of California - Berkeley

Since Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) (Lakoff &amp; Johnson, 1980) was introduced, methods of studying conceptual metaphor have kept improving to respond to methodological criticisms. Critical Metaphor Analysis (CMA) proposed by Charteris-Black (2004) has been considered as a “thought-provoking contribution” to metaphor analysis (Deignan, 2005) when approaching metaphor from various perspectives: critical discourse analysis, corpus analysis, pragmatics and cognitive linguistics. CMA is originally applied to one conceptual level in metaphor – domain. However, this paper argues that CMA can be exploited at four conceptual levels in Multi-level View of conceptual metaphor (Kövecses, 2017b) - image schema, domain, frame, and mental space. The combined framework of Critical Metaphor Analysis – CMA (Charteris-Black, 2004) and Multi-level View of conceptual metaphor – MLV (Kövecses, 2017b) can gain deeper insights into ideologies motivating metaphorical concepts for the Vietnam war as well as elucidate the conceptual structure of metaphor via the four levels. Hence, this combination fills the gap of lacking a framework with optimal balance of semantic, pragmatic, cognitive and critical dimensions. It also features the intriguing relationship between ideologies and conceptual structure, i.e., ideologies are embedded in all the four conceptual levels and systematically develop with increasing specificity from image schema to domain, frame and mental space. The focus of this paper is on our argument for an integrated framework of conceptual metaphor and the newspaper articles written by American war correspondents during the Vietnam war are used for illustration of how the integrated framework can help us better understand the conceptual metaphors in the articles.