When the Language Discovers Hidden Meanings in the Collective Unconscious: Four Conceptual Metaphors in the Montenegrin Language

Book Review. A New Insight into Theory of Conceptual Metaphor

Reviewed by: Metaphor in cognitive linguistics: Selected papers from the Fifth International Cognitive Linguistics Conference, Amsterdam, July 1997 ed. by Raymond W. Gibbs, Jr., Gerard J. Steen Kenneth A. McElhanon Metaphor in cognitive linguistics: Selected papers from the Fifth International Cognitive Linguistics Conference, Amsterdam, July 1997. Ed. by Raymond W. Gibbs, Jr. and Gerard J. Steen. (Amsterdam studies in the theory and history of linguistic science. Series IV-Current issues in linguistic theory, 175.) Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1999. Pp. viii, 225. $72.00. The book consists of eleven diverse articles on metaphor. Noteworthy articles include Iraide Ibarretxe-Antuñano’s [End Page 605] ‘Metaphorical mappings in the sense of smell’, which rejects suggestions that the sense of smell is mapped metaphorically and proposes a process of property selection within an inherent structure that is similar to the concept of radial structure. Joseph E. Grady, Todd Oakley, and Seana Coulson (‘Blending and metaphor’) argue that conceptual metaphor theory (CMT) and conceptual blending theory (BT) represent complementary approaches that differ mainly in (1) the number of mental representations each allows (CMT—two, BT—more than two); (2) basic unit of cognitive organization (CMT—semantic domain, BT—mental spaces as scenarios structured by given domains); (3) strict directionality (CMT—yes, BT—no); and (4) the kinds of relationships they posit between mental representations (CMT—entrenched and conventional, BT—short-lived and novel). They propose a principle of BT, that a blend is based upon particular connections within the network of input spaces not upon a systematic mapping of one domain onto another. Noticeably absent, however, is a consideration of whether or not such mental spaces are grounded in ICMs (Idealized Cognitive Models) and, if so, how the ICMs might frame the scenes and contribute encyclopedic knowledge. Gerard Steen, ‘From linguistic to conceptual metaphor in five steps’, attempts to develop a procedure for identifying conceptual metaphors in discourse. The primary task of the linguist who wishes to describe and explain the structure and function of language is metaphor analysis, not metaphor understanding—a purely cognitive process. Nevertheless, his procedures are very much grounded in understanding inasmuch as metaphor identification ‘is fundamentally a matter of conceptual analysis’, and an ‘analysis . . . lays bare how metaphors can differ from each other with respect to important dimensions of conceptual structure’ (64–65). The proposed methodology seems complex, perhaps because it is bound to a theory that requires a propositional analysis of literal and nonliteral meaning and is designed to assist an analyst who is apparently not a native speaker of the language under analysis. Joseph E. Grady, ‘A typology of motivation for conceptual metaphor: Correlation vs. resemblance’, explores systematic analyses of conventional and novel metaphorical expressions to discover ‘primary metaphors’, those fundamental, experientially motivated metaphors which serve as the basis for further mappings. Grady suggests two distinct classes of metaphors which differ in terms of directionality, ontology, and conventionality: One is based upon resemblance (rather than similiarity) and the other upon correlation. Four papers address the relationship between cultural metaphors and cultural models and claim that cognition is inextricably culturally-based. Raymond Gibbs, ‘Taking metaphor out of our heads and putting it into the cultural world’, suggests that metaphorical mappings are grounded in embodied behavior which in turn is connected with cultural experience. Zoltán Kövesecs, “Metaphor: Does it constitute or reflect cultural models?’, claims that basic experiences select the appropriate, simple, generic cultural metaphors that constitute the cultural models that structure abstract concepts. Alan Cienki, ‘Metaphors and cultural models as profiles and bases’, adopts Ronald Langacker’s base-profile model and claims that metaphors are profiled against cultural models. Michele Emanation, ‘Congruence by degree: On the relation between metaphor and cultural models’, suggests that a scale of congruence may be useful in accounting for the varying relationships between cultural models and conceptual metaphors. Kenneth A. McElhanon Summer Institute of Linguistics Copyright © 2002 Linguistic Society of America

Cameron, L., & Maslen, R. (Eds.). (2010). Analysis: Research Practice in Applied Linguistics, Social Sciences and the Humanities. London: Equinox. 306 pages. 978-1845534479 This book is a thorough summary of the project named Metaphor Analysis: Theoretical and Methodological Challenges in using Discourse Data, which was supported by the UK National Centre for Research Methods. There is also a parallel website from the Open University introducing the main intention, theoretical background, as well as some empirical studies discussed in the book. As is stated in the preface, the crucial point made in this book is that metaphor can be regarded not only as a research object but also a research (vii). The latter one has been explained in detail in the book, which is named by researchers as discourse (vii). Some studies have been done by applying this method to analyse spoken data. This book is a thorough summary of the project named Metaphor Analysis: Theoretical and Methodological Challenges in using Discourse Data, which was supported by the UK National Centre for Research Methods. There is also a parallel website from the Open University introducing the main intention, theoretical background, as well as some empirical studies discussed in the book. As is stated in the preface, the crucial point made in this book is that metaphor can be regarded not only as a research object but also a research (vii). The latter one has been explained in detail in the book, which is named by researchers as discourse (vii). Some studies have been done by applying this method to analyse spoken data. This book contains four sections and one concluding part. There are 15 chapters altogether distributing unevenly into the five sections. Section 1 and Section 2 deal with the motivation and theoretical approaches on metaphor analysis. Section 1 provides an overarching view on metaphor analysis, explains the powerfulness of metaphor being used as a tool to do discourse analysis with an empirical study done by Cameron who put forward the discourse dynamics approach to metaphor (cf. Cameron, 2003, 2007a; Cameron et al., 2009) which has been depicted in details in Section 2 Chapter 5. Meanwhile, some studies have been chosen to illustrate how metaphor analysis can be implemented in practice, comments on these studies are also provided with the purpose of providing some reference for the readers of the book to carry out their own research. Section 1 contains two chapters. Chapter 1 was contributed by Lynne Cameron, and Chapter 2 was co-written by Zazie Todd and Graham Low. Chapter 1 was written to argue that metaphor is crucial in human communication, understanding and conveying feelings. Therefore, metaphor-led discourse analysis has great potentiality and feasibility in doing discourse analysis. Cameron uses Burke's (1945) quotation to simply define metaphor. On the one hand, she points out the core of metaphor: using two different concepts to express one in terms of the other for better understanding. On the other hand, she puts forward the multidimensional nature of metaphor. In other words, a more adequate understanding on the phenomenon of metaphor needs to involve linguistic, embodied, cognitive, affective, socio-cultural, dynamic (p.1) considerations. To explain the linguistic aspect of metaphor in this book, Cameron first gives the working definitions of 'discourse' and 'discourse events'. Discourse is termed as the interactions (p.1) which involve the use of language, discourse events relate to the specific instances (p.1) of social interaction. in discourse is the key concept used in the book both as a tool and as an object. The use of 'linguistic metaphors' captures metaphors that are found in language use(p.2), which is different from the notion of 'conceptual metaphor' in conceptual metaphor theory. …

Metaphor makes our thoughts more vivid and fills our communication with richer imagery. Furthermore, according to the conceptual metaphor theory (CMT) of Lakoff and Johnson (Metaphors we live by. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1980), metaphor also plays an important structural role in the organization and processing of conceptual knowledge. According to this account, the phenomenon of metaphor is not restricted to similarity-based extensions of meanings of individual words, but instead involves activating fixed mappings that reconceptualize one whole area of experience in terms of another. CMT produced a significant resonance in the fields of philosophy, linguistics, cognitive science and artificial intelligence and still underlies a large proportion of modern research on metaphor. However, there has to date been no comprehensive corpus-based study of conceptual metaphor, which would provide an empirical basis for evaluating the CMT using real-world linguistic data. The annotation scheme and the empirical study we present in this paper is a step towards filling this gap. We test our annotation procedure in an experimental setting involving multiple annotators and estimate their agreement on the task. The goal of the study is to investigate (1) how intuitive the conceptual metaphor explanation of linguistic metaphors is for human annotators and whether it is possible to consistently annotate interconceptual mappings; (2) what are the main difficulties that the annotators experience during the annotation process; (3) whether one conceptual metaphor is sufficient to explain a linguistic metaphor or whether a chain of conceptual metaphors is needed. The resulting corpus annotated for conceptual mappings provides a new, valuable dataset for linguistic, computational and cognitive experiments on metaphor.

Subject of Study. The subject of our research is metaphor and conceptual metaphor. We begin the study with Aristotle’s metaphorical concept in order to see how much meaning from formal linguistics is initially inherent in metaphor and what potential for the development of its metaphysical and conceptual components. Metaphor in linguistic philosophical discourse is interpreted accordingly. We turned to several theories of metaphor, namely: analytical philosophy with several author theories. We also analyzed theories of metaphor from cognitive linguistics discourse. As a result, we focused our research on conceptual metaphor as a structure that most adequately reflects scientific and philosophical meanings. A conceptual metaphor is a structure that begins to form from the thought process and then continues in language, science, and everyday life. Purpose. The purpose of our research is to study linguistic, philosophical, cognitive theories of metaphor. The study of nature, semantics, and symbolic expression of a metaphor should show the true meaning and conceptualize the metaphor. As a result, we want to interpret metaphor as a structure of human consciousness and the thought process, which, after thinking, structure language, everyday life, and science. The structure combines a concept and a metaphor and is called a conceptual metaphor. Method. Our research methods are based on several methods of analytical philosophy, structural linguistics (aspects of synchrony and diachrony), cognitive linguistics, formal theory, and interactionism. We also use a comparative analysis of two discourses, namely analytic philosophy and. Conclusion. We conclude that Aristotle’s metaphorical theory contains the potential for a more detailed interpretation of metaphor in analytical philosophy and cognitive linguistics. As a result, of the study, we can draw several conclusions. Metaphor has gone through the process of actualizing its significance from literature and rhetoric, in which it acted as an artistic trope, according to Aristotle’s Poetics, to a structure that organizes the thought process, language, everyday life, science, and philosophy. As a result, we interpret metaphor in the terminology of cognitive linguistics as a structure of human consciousness and the thought process, which, after thinking, structure language, science, everyday life, has a concept and metaphysics in its composition and is called a conceptual metaphor.

The study explores the conceptual metaphor of "MEDIA AS A TRAP" in Vietnamese and English, aiming to understand perceptions of media in these linguistic contexts. Using the theory of conceptual metaphor in cognitive linguistics, alongside descriptive and semantic analysis methods, the research establishes and analyzes the mapping from the source domain of "TRAP" to the target domain of "MEDIA." By examining metaphorical expressions in press texts, the study uncovers underlying cognitive models, including media as trickery and media as a scam. Survey data reveals similar frequencies of metaphorical expressions in both languages, with 110 instances in Vietnamese and 90 in English, indicating a shared understanding of the metaphor. The analysis highlights significant parallels and distinctions in the conceptual metaphor "MEDIA IS A TRAP" between Vietnamese and English, underscoring its universal cognitive and linguistic significance. Both languages employ similar conceptual metaphorical expressions, yet exhibit subtle differences reflecting distinct cultural perspectives.

Metaphor makes our thoughts more vivid and fills our communication with richer imagery. Furthermore, according to the Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) of [30], metaphor also plays an important structural role in the organization and processing of conceptual knowledge. According to this account, the phenomenon of metaphor is not restricted to similarity-based extensions of meanings of individual words, but instead involves activating fixed mappings that reconceptualize one whole area of experience in terms of another. CMT produced a significant resonance in the fields of philosophy, linguistics, cognitive science and artificial intelligence and still underlies a large proportion of modern research on metaphor. However, there has to date been no comprehensive corpus-based study of conceptual metaphor, which would provide an empirical basis for evaluating the CMT using real-world linguistic data. The annotation scheme and the empirical study we present in this chapter is a step towards filling this gap. We test our annotation procedure in an experimental setting involving multiple annotators and estimate their agreement on the task. The goal of the study is to investigate (1) how intuitive the conceptual metaphor explanation of linguistic metaphors is for human annotators and whether it is possible to consistently annotate interconceptual mappings; (2) what are the main difficulties that the annotators experience during the annotation process; (3) whether one conceptual metaphor is sufficient to explain a linguistic metaphor or whether a chain of conceptual metaphors is needed. The resulting corpus annotated for conceptual mappings provides a new, valuable dataset for linguistic, computational and cognitive experiments on metaphor.

How does conceptual metaphor theory handle mixed metaphors? Several metaphor scholars argue that mixed metaphor is a phenomenon that conceptual metaphor theory cannot handle. Their argument is that, given the claims of conceptual metaphor theory, mixed metaphors should not occur at all. This is because once a conceptual metaphor is activated in discourse by means of a linguistic metaphor, that conceptual metaphor should lead to and support the use of further linguistic examples of the same conceptual metaphor. However, in real discourse, the argument goes, most metaphors are mixed, which indicates that conceptual metaphors are not activated and thus do not lead to further consistent linguistic metaphors of the same conceptual metaphor. In the paper, I will argue that the idea of the production of consistent and homogeneous linguistic examples does not necessarily follow from conceptual metaphor theory and that, as a matter of fact, the opposite is the case: given conceptual metaphor theory, we should expect the use of mixed metaphors in natural discourse.

This study is entitled (Analysis of the idioms of (head) in Kurdish language, from the perspective of cognitive linguistics). Language is one of the most important human achievements and occupies a large space in human life. Therefore, since the ancient times, humans have paid attention to it and tried to understand its secrets. Idioms are an important part of any language, and studying them helps us to understand the relationship between idioms and metaphors. The school of cognitive linguistics looks at idioms differently from all other linguistic schools. Other linguistic schools have studied the syntactic, semantic and pragmatic aspects of idioms and viewed them as fixed and inseparable structures and expressions. However, the cognitive linguists have a completely different view; they see idioms as conceptual metaphors and interpret every conceptual metaphor in terms of the conceptual matching and interaction between the source and target fields. Our study is an interpretation of the idioms of (head) from the school of cognitive linguistics’ perspective, in light of the theory of conceptual metaphor, the interpretation of idioms has been conducted. In general, the study consists of the introduction, two chapters, the results and the list of references. The first chapter discusses the perception of both schools of ancient and cognitive linguistics for idioms as well as the theory of conceptual metaphor, types of conceptual metaphors and metaphorical interaction between the source and target fields. In the second chapter, the idioms of (head) have been analyzed according to the theory of conceptual metaphor, followed by the results and a list of references.

This research focuses on conceptual TIME metaphors in Kristijonas Donelaitis’s The Seasons in order to supplement a so far scarce research in Lithuania of conceptual metaphors in translation, as time metaphors constitute fundamental aspects of culture and communication (Lakoff, Turner 1989). The present research aims to 1) analyze conceptual time metaphors in The Seasons and systemize them; 2) determine whether the metaphors are preserved in the translations of The Seasons: into Spanish (Caro Dugo 2013), English (Tempest 1985) and German (Passarge 1999).Text fragments were selected from The Seasons with hyponyms of the time concept which were analyzed based on the methodology of conceptual metaphors. Linguistic aspects of conceptual metaphors were compared with the mentioned translations. All the examples were analyzed based on the methodology of translation of linguistic aspects of conceptual metaphors as specified by Kövecses (2005).The following conceptual time metaphors were found in The Seasons: TIME IS OBJECT, TIME IS VOLUME, TIME IS LIMITED RIGHTS, TIME IS PLANT, TIME IS FOOD, TIME IS FESTIVAL, TIME IS MOVING OBJECT, TIME IS CHARACTER, TIME IS HUMAN, TIME IS ANIMAL.By comparing the linguistic aspects of the conceptual time metaphors in The Seasons by Donelaitis and the way they are rendered across several languages, it was determined that most often the conceptual metaphor in translation is preserved, i.e. the conceptual metaphor as well as its literal and figurative meaning are the same in both the original text and the translation. Only one case was found when the literal meaning and the underlying conceptual metaphors were different in the original and all three translations; however, the figurative meaning is maintained. In some cases the conceptual metaphor and its linguistic expression are different in the original text and the translation. Such cases probably occur due to the fact that the translator chooses a different source domain, which changes the conceptual metaphor and the mappings. Another reason could be concerned with the translator’s decision to distance himself/herself from the original due to linguistic and cultural aspects or text-specific factors.

This entry presents a cognitive linguistic view of figurative language, with a focus on conceptual metaphor theory (CMT), which distinguishes between conceptual and linguistic metaphors. Conceptual metaphors are concepts linked by metaphorical mappings in our conceptual systems whereas linguistic metaphors manifest metaphorical conceptual mappings in our language. Conceptual metaphors also form hierarchical systems, with primary metaphors at a higher, more schematic level and complex metaphors at a lower, more specific level. Complex metaphors may often be decomposed into primary metaphors in combination with literal cultural beliefs. Conceptual metaphors are grounded in both bodily and cultural experiences, and the interaction between body and culture gives rise to specific metaphors in a particular language and culture.

The Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) established the pervasiveness of metaphor in thought and language and provided evidence that metaphor is, in fact, deeply embedded in our conceptual system. Contrary to the original claim that conceptual metaphors are largely universal, in almost four decades after its inception, the CMT researchers including George Lakoff and Mark Johnson have advanced the idea of cultural influence on metaphorical conceptualisation. In recent years, the trend in metaphor research has been to study how metaphor behaves in naturally occurring discourse. It is in this context that the current study explores conceptual metaphors in India's rich cultural context. The main objectives of the current study are, (i) to examine conceptual metaphors of womanhood found in English literary works set in India's three culturally diverse linguistic regions, and (ii) to compare and contrast them across literary works of the three regions.�The data of linguistic metaphors was collected from 21 literary works, seven in each linguistic region. This data was tested for metaphoricity using the Metaphor Identification Procedure, Vrije University, Amsterdam (MIPVU) developed by the PRAGGLEJAZ Group, after which it was analysed using the CMT. The CMT enabled the identification of the source domain used in each linguistic metaphor and subsequently, the uncovering of conceptual metaphors through the establishment of cross-domain mappings between the source and target domains. The framework of the Cognitive Dimension of Metaphor Variation by Zoltan K?vecses has been used to analyse the metaphors for similarities and variations across the three regions. The Great Chain of Being metaphor or the GCB model has guided the understanding of the negative and positive conceptualisation of the metaphors of womanhood.�The analysis revealed that a total of 30 source domains have been utilised by the authors across the three regions. Of these, 21 in the Indo-Aryan, 27 in the Dravidian and 23 source domains in Tibeto-Burmese literary works. Of these, the source domains, ANIMALS, OBJECTS, SUPERNATURAL ENTITIES, PLANTS, and ELEMENTS OF NATURE are the most frequently used. The source domain, ANIMALS tops in the aggregate with approximately 25% of total metaphors across the three regions conceptualising women in terms of animals. The next most frequently used source domain is OBJECTS with 22% of the total metaphors conceptualising women in terms of objects.�In terms of the target domains of womanhood, the Indo-Aryan works focus more on the conceptualisation of motherhood, the Dravidian works focus more on the conceptualisation of wifehood and metaphors found in the Tibeto-Burmese literary works focus more on the women's physical attributes and beauty. Lastly, the conceptualisation of womanhood in the Indo-Aryan and Dravidian literary works is more negative than positive, with the negative conceptualisation of womanhood being the higher in the Dravidian literary works. In the Tibeto-Burmese literary works, the percentage of positive and negative metaphors was found to be proportionate. The main implication of this research is that it is the first comprehensive study of literary metaphors ever conducted. The study analysed 708 linguistic metaphors of womanhood from 21 literary works across India.

This study is entitled "Orientational Metaphor in Central Kurdish". It attempts to explicate how non-spatial concepts are metaphorised in terms of various aspects of space in Central Kurdish. The main aim of the study is to interpret spatial metaphorical expressions that express the cognitive processes of meaning-making. The study adopts the Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT)within the framework of cognitive semantics. It deals with orientational metaphor as a specific type of conceptual metaphor. In cognitive semantics, language is a mirror of thought; linguistic expressions are manifestations of conceptual mappings structured in the mind. The data of the study is taken from ordinary everyday Kurdish. The data analysis illuminates the spatialization of a wide variety of abstract concepts through metaphorical uses of space. The study is in line with the cognitive linguists in that linguistic expressions that represent concepts are not semantically independent, as the Anglo-American philosophical tradition claimed, but are structured with respect to one another. Spatial concepts are first structured in thought in the form of a formula based on physical and socio-cultural experiences, and then expressed via linguistic metaphors; accordingly, metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, it is in thought, not in language. It is patterns of thought that are echoed in patterns of language.

This article is devoted to the problem of the study of metaphor in Cognitive Linguistics, the conceptual theory of metaphor. The article deals with the works of such research scientists as Earl McCormack, G.Lakoff and M.Johnson, as well as Raymond W.Gibbs Jr., Dedra Gentner, Brian Bowdle, Lynn Cameron, Gilles Fauconier, Michael J. Reddy, David Pantner and others. Definitions are given for two types of metaphors: orientational and ontological metaphors. The article also discusses such aspects as conceptual mapping or conceptual matching, there are three types of this mapping. The article also touches upon the levels of the metaphorical, cognitive process. The conceptual theory of metaphor is well represented in the books by G.Lakoff and M.Johnson «Metaphors we live by». The article also provides examples of conceptual metaphors. The main function of metaphor is its cognitive aspect, the function of obtaining new knowledge. Metaphor in the aspect of cognitive linguistics is considered through the prism of the conceptual theory of metaphor. Metaphorical thinking is inherent not only to modern man, but from time immemorial, metaphor has been skillfully used in the everyday habitual way of life of a person. Conceptual metaphor in the aspect of cognitive linguistics is one of the main cognitive operations, a way of thinking, understanding, cognition, perception and interpretation of the environment around us. This is the transition of experience, information, knowledge about one semantic area to another semantic area.

In this article, the author analyzes the conceptual metaphors politics is a pond, a politician is a carp and a politician is a pike in Czech political discourse. The investigation is based on the theory of conceptual metaphor and follows the principles of ethnolinguistics and cognitive linguistics. The author shows how the specific features of these conceptual metaphors relate to the Czech linguistic worldview and proposes metaphorical mapping that conveys salient features of the target domain (politics and politicians). The conceptual metaphor politics is a pond helps the speaker to depict a problematic domestic political situation that needs to be changed. The metaphors a politician is a carp and a politician is a pike are usually used to create the “friend-foe” opposition in political discourse. The conceptual metaphor a politician is a carp discloses the passivity and laziness of politicians and their inability or unwillingness to change the current situation. On the other hand, the conceptual metaphor a politician is a pike can be used to indicate both the positive qualities of a politician (activity, energy, initiative) and the negative ones (greed, selfishness, cruelty). The use of culturally specific conceptual metaphors allows a politician to establish close contact with the audience to increase the number of loyal voters.