Abstract

Simple SummaryBacteria can develop resistance to antibiotics, resulting in the appearance of infections that are difficult or impossible to treat. This ability enables bacteria to survive in hostile environments and can result from exposure to even small amounts of antibiotic substances. Bacteria are present in the reproductive tract of the horse; they can develop resistance to antibiotics, because the animal has been treated for an infection, or due to insemination with a semen dose that contains antibiotics. Bacteria colonize the membrane lining the male reproductive tract and are transferred to the semen during collection. They can cause sperm quality to deteriorate during storage or may cause an infection in the mare. Therefore, antibiotics are added to the semen dose, according to legislation. However, these antibiotics may contribute to the development of resistance. Current recommendations are that antibiotics should only be used to treat bacterial infections and where the sensitivity of the bacterium to the antibiotic has first been established. Therefore, adding antibiotics to semen extenders does not fit these recommendations. In this review, we examine the effects of bacteria in semen and in the inseminated mare, and possible alternatives to their use.Bacteria develop resistance to antibiotics following low-level “background” exposure to antimicrobial agents as well as from exposure at therapeutic levels during treatment for bacterial infections. In this review, we look specifically at antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in the equine reproductive tract and its possible origin, focusing particularly on antibiotics in semen extenders used in preparing semen doses for artificial insemination. Our review of the literature indicated that AMR in the equine uterus and vagina were reported worldwide in the last 20 years, in locations as diverse as Europe, India, and the United States. Bacteria colonizing the mucosa of the reproductive tract are transferred to semen during collection; further contamination of the semen may occur during processing, despite strict attention to hygiene at critical control points. These bacteria compete with spermatozoa for nutrients in the semen extender, producing metabolic byproducts and toxins that have a detrimental effect on sperm quality. Potential pathogens such as Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa may occasionally cause fertility issues in inseminated mares. Antibiotics are added during semen processing, according to legislation, to impede the growth of these microorganisms but may have a detrimental effect on sperm quality, depending on the antimicrobial agent and concentration used. However, this addition of antibiotics is counter to current recommendations on the prudent use of antibiotics, which recommend that antibiotics should be used only for therapeutic purposes and after establishing bacterial sensitivity. There is some evidence of resistance among bacteria found in semen samples. Potential alternatives to the addition of antibiotics are considered, especially physical removal separation of spermatozoa from bacteria. Suggestions for further research with colloid centrifugation are provided.

Highlights

  • The World Health Organisation (WHO) described antibiotic resistance as being one of the greatest challenges facing humankind in the modern world [1]

  • Similar results were found in a study by Al-Kass et al [67], interestingly, they found that 25% of the bacteria remained in the samples after single layer centrifugation (SLC) if antibiotics were present in the extender, whereas only 18% of the bacteria remained after SLC where no antibiotics were included

  • Bacteria are present in the uterus of the mare; antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in the flora of the mares reproductive tract is reported in many countries and involves resistance against several antimicrobial agents

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Summary

Introduction

The World Health Organisation (WHO) described antibiotic resistance as being one of the greatest challenges facing humankind in the modern world [1]. Even low-level usage of antibiotics, such as in topical applications, can contribute to the appearance of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Therapeutic treatment of both animals and humans contributes to background resistance, i.e., maintaining resistance within bacteria in the environment. The widespread use of antibiotics in semen extenders used to prepare semen doses for artificial insemination (AI) could represent an important cause of AMR in brood mares, and deserves particular attention. This application represents a hidden use of antibiotics that may not be completely justified.

Development of Antimicrobial Resistance
Bacteria in the Equine Uterus
Antimicrobial Resistance in the Mare’s Reproductive Tract
Bacteria in Semen
Effects of Bacteria on Sperm Quality
Effects of Antibiotics in Semen Extenders on Bacteria
Effects of Antibiotics in Semen Extenders on Sperm Quality
Effects of Antibiotics in Semen Extenders on the Mare
Antimicrobial Peptides
Nanoparticles
Physical Removal of Bacteria
Findings
Conclusions

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