Abstract
This chapter deals with the overall age-associated changes observed in human immunity, beginning with an overview of the components of the immune system. We then summarize the effects of age on these different components, discussing the problems faced by investigators studying ageing in long-lived outbred species like humans. We describe the limitations inherent in cross-sectional studies together with some possible solutions to these problems, such as longitudinal studies. We then discuss the possible reasons for these age-associated changes, starting with hematopoiesis and the effects of age on stem cells and continuing with the phenomenon of thymic involution. We consider biomarkers termed ‘immune signatures’ and those forming an ‘immune risk profile’. We conclude with a brief consideration of overall impact of age on responses to vaccination in humans.
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