Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scale Research Articles

Episodic chasing in pathological gamblers using the Iowa gambling task

"Chasing ones losses" is a key symptom among pathological gamblers (PGs). This study focuses on quantitative differences in episodic chasing (i.e., sequences of disadvantageous decisions within a single gambling session) between PGs and non-pathological gamblers (NPGs). We compared 61 PGs and 39 NPGs on the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) and the Zuckerman Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS). The PGs showed significantly more chasing and had significantly poorer decision-making strategies than NPGs, particularly among males (F = 4.52, p < 0.05). Random players were significantly less sensation seeking than advantageous and disadvantageous (i.e., chasing) players, but there was no interaction with group or gender. The results suggest that quantifiable within-session gambling behavior holds important implications for detecting underlying vulnerabilities to gambling pathology.

Doing It in the Dirt: High sensation seeking motocross racers

Determining the psychological characteristics of long‐term participants in a high‐risk sport is relevant to understanding their persistence with the chosen sport. Studies have shown that participants in high‐risk sports such as skydiving, big wave surfing and mountain climbing have higher scores on Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scale than people in the general population. This study sets out to investigate whether motocross racers in Central Queensland, Australia, have high sensation seeking scores. Sensation seeking was measured using Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Form V and motocross racers were found to be high sensation seekers. In addition, sensation seeking was compared to the generation of the participant (Millennnial, Generation X or Baby Boomer) as a new avenue of research. Central Queensland motocross racers have very high Disinhibition subscale scores related to partying, drinking, willingness to undertake new experiences and enjoying ‘sexy’ scenes in movies, and have a preference for alcohol over illicit drugs. Previous research suggested that scores on two subscales of sensation seeking (Thrill and Adventure Seeking, and Experience Seeking) decline with age at faster rates than the scores on the other two subscales (Disinhibition and Boredom Susceptibility), but this study provides contrary results. Thrill and Adventure Seeking did decline quickly with generation of the participant but Experience Seeking scores actually increased from the Millennials to the Baby Boomers. Disinhibition scores did decrease at a slower rate than Thrill and Adventure Seeking. However, riders younger than 23 (the Millennials) and 44 years of age or older (Baby Boomers) had higher Boredom Susceptibility scores than those aged 23 to 43 years (Generation X).

Pathological gambling and sensation seeking–How do gamblers playing games of chance in cafés differ from those who bet on horses at the racetrack?

The purpose of this study was to study the sensation seeking personality trait in two groups of French pathological gamblers: one group who play games available in cafés (n = 57) and one group who bet on horses at the racetrack (n = 42). Sensation seeking was measured with the Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scale; intensity of gambling behavior with the South Oaks Gambling Screen and the DSM-IV criteria of pathological gambling. Pathological gamblers who bet at the racetracks had significantly higher scores on Sensation Seeking than those who play games available in cafés. These findings are consistent with the idea of identifying clinically distinct subgroups of gamblers essential in the treatment pathological gambling. One subtype is made of those who play “active” games who gamble for the arousal produced by the game. The second subtype would be one made up of those who play “passive” games who gamble to avoid unpleasant emotional states.

Are there common mechanisms in sensation seeking and reality distortion in schizophrenia? A study using memory event-related potentials

A growing literature suggests that the characteristics of sensation seeking and reality distortion expressed in schizophrenia share several mechanisms. In a previous study, the comparison of patients with high vs. low reality distortion using event-related potentials (ERPs) recorded in a recognition memory task for unfamiliar faces identified neural and cognitive anomalies specifically related to the expression of these symptoms. As a follow-up, this study investigated the ERP correlates of sensation seeking in schizophrenia using the same recognition memory protocol. ERPs have been recorded in controls ( N = 21) and schizophrenia patients separated into high (HSS; N = 13) and low (LSS; N = 17) scorers according to Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scale. The results show a reduced P2a that was found unrelated to reality distortion in the previous study of reality distortion. It identifies interference inhibition impairment as being specifically related to sensation seeking. On the other hand, HSS scorers display enhanced fronto-central and normal P600 effects also found in high reality distortion patients. These results indicate inappropriate context processing and mnemonic binding common to sensation seeking and reality distortion. LSS scorers also display a reduced temporal N300 similar to that found in low reality distortion patients. This anomaly could reflect the lower reactivity to emotionally significant stimuli that underlies anhedonia symptoms. Finally, the N400 effect and a late frontal effect are found in both HSS and LSS. Since they were unrelated to reality distortion, these indices have been related to basic aspects of schizophrenia, e.g., deficient knowledge integration, or other mechanisms, e.g. anxiety or impulsivity. In summary, the present study examines the strategy of investigating variables, such as temperamental characteristics, in addition to symptoms, to show how discrete impairments may contribute to the expression of the illness.

Sensation seeking in a French population of pathological gamblers: comparison with regular and nongamblers.

To test the hypothesis that pathological gamblers in the French general population who play games available in cafés score lower on sensation seeking than regular and nongamblers, the Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scale was administered to 57 diagnosed pathological gamblers, 40 regular gamblers, and a control group of 97 nongamblers. Whereas pathological gamblers did not obtain a significantly lower Sensation Seeking mean than the regular and nongamblers groups, analysis indicated that those pathological gamblers seek different and multiple forms of games to reduce boredom, but they do not necessarily seek excitement-generating activities. One possible interpretation is that the types of games investigated in this study are "passive" forms of games that required low involvement from the gamblers.

Pre—Treatment Measures of Impulsivity, Aggression and Sensation Seeking Are Associated with Treatment Outcome for African—American Cocaine—Dependent Patients

We investigated whether measures of impulsivity, aggression and sensation seeking differed between cocainedependent subjects and controls, and whether these measures were related to treatment—outcome for cocaine patients. Pretreatment assessments of impulsivity (Barratt Impulsivity Scale [BIS]), aggression (Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory [BDHI]) and sensation seeking (Zuckerman Sensation Seeking Scale [SSS]) were obtained for 141 African—American cocainedependent patients entering a 12-week, intensive outpatient treatment program and 60 controls. The outcome measures were number of negative urine drug screens, days in treatment, dropout rates and number of treatment sessions. Cocaine patients reported significantly higher scores on the SSS, the BIS and the BDHI than controls. Furthermore, the SSS scores showed a significantly negative correlation with days in treatment and negative urines, and a significant positive correlation with the drop—out rate. The BIS and the BDHI scores were significantly associated with days in treatment and dropout rates respectively. A combination of the three variables contributed significantly toward predicting retention and abstinence. Higher levels of pretreatment impulsivity and aggression and sensation seeking seem to associated with poor treatment outcome for cocaine dependent patients receiving intensive outpatient treatment. Combining these behavioral measures with other clinical predictors may help in early identification of 'poor responders' who may benefit from additional or alternative treatment approaches.

The experience of fear in high-risk sport

The purpose of this study was to investigate the experience of fear as described by athletes who participate in physically dangerous sports. A phenomenological research design was employed. The data were obtained from extensive interviews with twelve participants representing six countries: South Africa, Namibia, Zimbabwe, The Czech Republic, The United States and Canada. Participants were high level competitors in gymnastics, white-water kayaking, ski racing and rock climbing. An additional quantitative measure, Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scale, was used to complement the interview findings. The results were presented in the delineation of 26 meaning cluster groups and seven themes. High-risk sport participants indicated frequent experiences with "peak" and "ultimate" athletic moments including physiological changes during all stages of participation. The athletes used a variety of mental strategies to cope with perceived danger that included an increase in focus on technical aspects, imagery and denial. Keywords: High-risk sport, Fear, High-level competitors, Phenomenology South African Journal for Research in Sport, Physical Education and Recreation Vol.25(2) 2003: 49-56

Substance Use Among High-School Students: Relationships with Temperament, Personality Traits, and Parental Care Perception

Alcohol use, “alcohol abuse,” and illicit drug use were investigated in a representative sample of 1076 urban, northern Italian high school students aged 14 to 19 years in 2001. In addition to questions on substance use, the participants were asked about school achievements and perceived substance use among friends. All the students were submitted to Zuckerman Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS) scale, Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory (BDHI), and Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI). Lifetime alcohol use was found in 80.5%, “alcohol abuse” in 37.7%, cannabis use in 26.2%, ecstasy in 2.8%, heroin in 3.8%, and cocaine in 8.3% of the students: gender differences were significant for alcohol use, “alcohol abuse” and ecstasy use, with male subjects outnumbering females, but not for reported cannabis, heroin, and cocaine use. Early substance use onset among adolescents aged 14–16 years was detected. Higher sensation seeking on SSS, social coping impairment on EPQ, direct aggressiveness on BDHI, poor school achievements, and lower parental care on PBI were found associated with illicit drug use and “alcohol abuse” (multiple drugs users). Increased levels of aggressiveness and sensation seeking were evidenced both in minimal experimenters (ME) and habitual users (HU), without any significant difference, in comparison with abstinent students. Similarly, ME scored higher than abstinent subjects on EPQ for social coping impairment, but lower than HU. Parental care perception was lower in HU, but not in ME with, respect to abstinent subjects. Pearson inverse correlation was demonstrated between PBI scores and EPQ maladaptation and BDHI aggressiveness. Data from this preliminary pilot study suggest that temperamental traits and personality changes may be associated to early substance use “proneness” and reduced perception of parental care.

The speeding attitude scale and the role of sensation seeking in profiling young drivers at risk.

Seven driving attitude scales representing driving behaviors and beliefs about driving were created and initially validated using 257 undergraduate students (168 females, 89 males) in Study 1. However, the Speeding Attitude Scale (SAS) accounted for most of the strength of the intercorrelations among these scales and discriminant classification analyses showed that SAS dominated the other scales as a sufficient explanation for having speeding tickets. Study 2, using 180 students (75 males, 105 females), replicated findings regarding the significant but low correlation between SAS and speeding tickets, and was significantly correlated with Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS). Replication also showed that males had higher SAS scores and more speeding tickets. Accidents were typically a function of sex, increasing age, and variables related to recent accident history. Objective sources of speeding attitude confirmation may enhance the future validity of the SAS. Potential interventions for being a safe passenger and attitudinal control in the training of young drivers were discussed.

Use of Cocaine by Secondary School Students in Northern Spain

Aim: To describe the prevalence of cocaine and other drug use in secondary school students in Oviedo (Asturias, Northern Spain) and determine the personality features and levels of sensation seeking in cocaine users. Methods: 2,862 secondary school students (mean age ± SD = 15.87 ± 1.48 years; 50.6% males) were interviewed during the 1998–1999 academic year. For evaluation, the World Health Organization questionnaire for drug consumption, the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) for adults and the Zuckerman Sensation Seeking Scale were used. Results: The prevalence of lifetime, previous year and previous month cocaine use among secondary school students was 6.1, 4.9 and 2.7%, respectively. Cocaine ranked sixth among illicit drugs ever used by this population. Once individuals had used cocaine for the first time, they were likely to use it again (44.8% of those who had ever used cocaine reported that they had done so in the previous month). Compared to students who had never used cocaine (but who may have used other substances), cocaine users had a more extensive drug abuse history. Students who had used cocaine at some point during their lifetime scored significantly higher on the EPQ psychoticism subscale and reported higher levels of sensation seeking. Conclusions: There is a significant rate of cocaine consumption amongst secondary school students of both sexes. Cocaine users are polyconsumers of other substances, both legal and illicit. Those who consume cocaine have a different psychological profile, characterized by high sensation seeking and high levels of psychoticism.

Decision-making in disinhibited adolescents and adults: insensitivity to future consequences or driven by immediate reward?

This study examined the effects of cognitive and behavioural disinhibition on real life decision-making in three different age groups (young adults, 15-16 year-olds and 12-13 year-olds). The Disinhibition-scale of Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scale was used to differentiate between low vs. high in cognitive disinhibition and the Matching Familiar Figures Test (Kagan et al., 1964) was used to obtain an index of behavioural inhibition. All participants completed two versions of an experimental analogue of the Iowa Card Gambling Task. In the standard version rewards were placed up front and punishments were delayed and this schedule was reversed in the other version. The results showed impaired performance of cognitively disinhibited individuals but only on the standard task, not on the reversed gambling task. Performance increased with age on both tasks. Behavioural inhibition failed to influence performance on both versions of the gambling task. These findings were interpreted to suggest that (1) real-life decision-making is intact in cognitively disinhibited individuals, and (2) the age-related increase in real life decision-making cannot be attributed to developmental changes in cognitive disinhibition.

Sensation seeking and risk taking in mortality salience

This study aimed to examine responses of sensation seekers concerning their tendency to take risks in driving in mortality salience. Ss completed the Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking scale (SSS). Two weeks later Ss were divided into two groups; the experimental group, which was exposed to a terrifying video film dealing with consequences of risky driving and a control group with a nature video film. After watching the films, each participant was asked to complete a risk-taking inventory (RT), which referred to the extent of risk s/he would take while driving. High sensation seekers reported more risk taking in driving than sensation avoiders. Furthermore, a significant interaction was found between Mortality Salience and Sensation Seeking regarding risky driving, especially speeding. The implications of these findings on the well-established educational approaches based on terror are presented in the discussion.

Sensation seeking as a common factor in opioid dependent subjects and high risk sport practicing subjects. A cross sectional study

Objective: Animal research has outlined a vulnerability trait to drug dependence like behavior. The behavioral characteristic of this vulnerability is hyperactivity in response to a novel environment of which sensation seeking (SS) has been suggested as a possible equivalent in humans. If this is the case, SS should be more frequent in drug dependent and risky sports practicing subjects then controls. The objective of this study was to determine if opioid dependent subjects (ODS) and regular paragliders (RP) would be more SS then normal controls. Design: Cross sectional study. Participants: Three groups of 34 individuals (total 102) matched for age and sex were selected from ODS seeking treatment, a paragliding club, and a college staff. Main outcome measures: Global and sub-scores of the Zuckerman sensation seeking scale (SSS). Results: Non parametric statistics (Kruskal Wallis and Wilcoxon 2-Sample Tests) were used given the non-normal distribution of SSS scores in the ODS and RP groups. Significant differences were found across the three groups for the Thrill and Adventure Seeking (TAS) ( P=0.001), dishinibition (Dis) ( P=0.0003) and total score ( P=0.001). ODS and RP scored significantly higher than controls on two (Dis and the TAS scales). RP also scored significantly higher on the Boredom Susceptibility (BS) scale ( P=0.04). Conclusion: Our results show that RP and ODS differ from controls and have some similarities based on the SSS. In this study, the ODS and the RP could express different forms of a general tendency to seek intense and abrupt sensations through various behaviors. Our results in humans are in favor of the hypothesis that the behavioral trait of vulnerability to drug dependence behavior is expressed through SS.

Sensation seeking and subjective unpleasantness ratings of stimulus intensity.

Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scale measures tendency to seek novel, varied, complex, and intense sensations and experiences and the willingness to take risks for the sake of such experiences. In this study, the subjective experience of sensory intensity change was explored by asking six high and six low sensation seekers to expose themselves to a combined sound and vibration stimulus that increased in intensity until one of three different levels of subjective unpleasantness was reached. Analysis showed that high sensation seekers consistently exposed themselves to longer periods of stimulation and thus higher intensities.

Dopamine D 4 receptor gene polymorphism and extraversion revisited: results from the Munich gene bank project for alcoholism

In 1998 a gene bank project for association studies in alcoholism was initiated at the Psychiatric Hospital of Munich. The research instruments used were partly adopted from the US collaborative study of the genetics of alcoholism and include the family history assessment module (FHAM), the semi-structured interview for assessment of genetics in alcoholism (SSAGA) and a number of personality inventories such as the Zuckerman's sensation-seeking scale, the NEO Five factor inventory and the temperament and character inventory. Based on the examination of 181 alcoholic subjects, no association was found between Dopamine D4 receptor gene polymorphism and novelty-seeking or extraversion as assessed by the three personality inventories. These findings are in line with a number of more recent studies questioning the association between novelty-seeking and DRD4 dopamine receptor gene polymorphism. Possible implications of these findings are discussed.

An Examination of the Reliability of Scores From Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scales, Form V

An Examination of the Reliability of Scores From Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scales, Form V

Sex differences and statistical stereotyping in attitudes toward financial risk

Subjects in a laboratory experiment completed the Zuckerman Sensation-Seeking Scale (SSS) then chose among five alternative gambles with substantial financial stakes. The gambles differed in expected return and variance. Gambles were presented in one of two different frames in a between-subjects design. In one, subjects were paid a fixed sum for completing the survey and that sum was then at risk in the subsequent gamble choices. In the other, all payoff amounts for the gambles were nonnegative. Subjects were paid according to their choices and the outcomes of the gambles. We tested for sex differences in this choice task and found women to be consistently more risk averse, on average, than men. We observed no difference across frames. Subjects were then asked to guess the gamble choices of each of the other participants and were rewarded for each correct answer. Subjects of both sexes did substantially better than chance in guessing the particular choices of individuals of both sexes, but both men and women overestimated the risk aversion of others, especially that of women, and most strongly of all with respect to men's predictions of women's choices. Possible real-world implications of biased assumptions about women's risk attitudes are discussed.

Early risk indicators of substance abuse among nurses.

To investigate early risk factors that led to substance-related disorders and to predict group differences between substance-impaired (SI) and nonimpaired (NI) registered nurses. Donovan's multifactorial model of impairment, and Rogers' Science of Unitary Human Beings. Data were gathered from 100 previously SI and 100 NI nurses located through use of the Internet. Three questionnaires were used: the Zuckerman Sensation Seeking Scale (ZSSS), the Efinger Alcohol Risk Survey (EARS), and the Children of Alcoholics Screening Test (CAST). Independent t-test scores showed the two groups differed significantly on all three instruments' total scores. Discriminate analysis indicated a correct prediction of 87% for SI and 95% for NI nurses, with an overall rate of 91%. EARS scores were the best predictor of nurses with substance-related disorders (.99), followed by ZSSS (.44) and CAST (.42) scores. The three variables indicate early risk factors for substance-abuse impairment. Identification of nurses at risk for impairment will allow for earlier intervention and possible prevention. Methods to reduce the number of modifiable risk factors are recommended.

Use of MDMA and Other Illicit Drugs by Young Adult Males in Northern Spain

Aim: To measure the prevalence of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and other drug use in young males entering compulsory military service in Asturias (northern Spain) and to define trends in MDMA use in this group during the period from 1995 to 1999. We also sought to determine whether MDMA users have distinct personality features or higher levels of sensation seeking. Methods: 3,634 conscripts [mean age (SD) = 20.19 years (2.52)] who entered military service during the period between 1995 and 1999 were evaluated using the World Health Organization (WHO) questionnaire for drug consumption, the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire-A (EPQ-A), and the Zuckerman Sensation Seeking Scale. Results and Conclusions: The prevalence of lifetime, previous year and previous month MDMA use among military recruits between 1995 and 1999 was 10.9, 7.8 and 4.5%, ranking fifth among illicit drugs ever used. Once individuals used MDMA for the first time, they were likely to use it again, with 71% of individuals who had ever used MDMA reporting that they had used it during the past year (ranking second only to hallucinogens), and 41% reporting having used it in the last month. Compared to recruits who had never used MDMA (but who may have used other illicit drugs), MDMA users had a more extensive drug abuse history. Recruits who had used MDMA during the year prior to study had significantly higher scores on the Neuroticism and Psychoticism Subscales of the EPQ-A, and reported higher levels of sensation seeking.

Impulse control disorders and depression.

This study assessed the frequency of impulse control disorders (ICDs) and their association with bulimia, compulsive buying, and suicide attempts in a population of depressed inpatients. We investigated ICDs using the Minnesota Impulsive Disorders Interview. Patients answered the Zuckerman Sensation-Seeking Scale and the Barratt Impulsivity Rating Scale. Among the 31 depressed patients who met criteria for ICD (ICD+ group), we found 18 cases of intermittent explosive disorder, three cases of pathological gambling, four cases of kleptomania, three cases of pyromania, and three cases of trichotillomania. Patients with co-occurring ICDs were significantly younger (mean age = 37.7 versus 42.8 years). Patients with kleptomania had a higher number of previous depressive episodes (5.7 versus 1.3), and patients with pyromania had a higher number of previous depressions (3.3 versus 1.3, p =.01). Bipolar disorders were more frequent in the ICD+ group than in the ICD- group (19% versus 1.3%, p =.002), whereas antisocial personality was not (3% versus 1%, p = ns). Bulimia (42% versus 10.5%, p =.005) and compulsive buying (51% versus 22%, p =.006) were significantly more frequent in the ICD+ group. Patients from the ICD+ group had higher scores of motor impulsivity assessed with the Barratt Impulsivity rating scale (p =.01).