Zoo Veterinary Research Articles

DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF A STANDARDIZED SYSTEM FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF LOCOMOTOR HEALTH IN ELEPHANTS UNDER HUMAN CARE.

Although lameness is a common problem in elephants (Asian elephant [Elephas maximus] and African elephants Loxodonta africana and Loxodonta cyclotis) under human care, there has not been a standardized lameness assessment system to date. This study developed and evaluated a standardized system for the assessment of locomotion in elephants under human care regardless of husbandry system. In total, 72 elephants out of a possible 73 in the United Kingdom and Ireland were filmed from behind, from in front, and from both sides. Using a questionnaire and a select panel of elephant specialists, a zoo veterinarian, and a locomotion expert, a numerical rating scoring (NRS) system was proposed. Locomotion was scored on a 4-point scale with numerical values 0-4 corresponding to specific criteria as follows: 0 = clinically sound, 1 = stiffness, 2 = abnormal tracking, and 4 = reluctance to bear weight. The intra- and interobserver repeatability of five veterinary surgeons using this system was determined and compared with a visual analog scale (VAS) expressed as a 100-mm line. Overall intraobserver reliability was moderate (Cohen's kappa [κ] = 0.676) and interobserver reliability was fair (κ = 0.37) for the presence of lameness. Interobserver agreement improved from the first scoring to second scoring from slight agreement to fair agreement for stiffness and reluctance to bear weight. Abnormal tracking had moderate intraobserver agreement for both scoring sessions. There were wide widths of agreement for the VAS interobserver (67 mm); however, they were narrower for the intraobserver (33 mm). The developed NRS can be used on freely moving elephants to evaluate elephant locomotion, regardless of husbandry methods, and has been shown to be more reliable than a VAS.

A retrospective study of pathologic findings in cephalopods (extant subclasses: Coleoidea and Nautiloidea) under laboratory and aquarium management.

This retrospective study examines pathologic findings in 593 captive cephalopods (340 octopuses, 130 cuttlefish, 33 squid, and 90 nautiluses; 22 species in total) submitted to International Zoo Veterinary Group Pathology between May 2003 and August 2022. Common octopus, European common cuttlefish, hummingbird bobtail squid, and chambered nautilus were the most numerous species from the included orders of Octopoda, Sepiida, Sepiolida, and Nautilida, respectively. Commonly identified conditions included coccidiosis and renal dicyemid mesozoan infection in octopuses, amebiasis in squid, bacterial infections in cuttlefish, and idiopathic multisystemic inflammatory disease in nautiluses. Coccidiosis was most frequent in common octopuses, giant Pacific octopuses, and California 2-spot octopuses (present in 68.4%, 46.3%, and 23.8% of these species, respectively) and was the attributed cause of death in 32.3%, 36.0%, and 60.0% of such cases, respectively. Ulcerative dermatitis (UD) was common, affecting squid, cuttlefish, and octopuses, while many nautiluses exhibited black shell disease and/or UD. Notable differences in the prevalence of UD were detected between laboratory and aquaria-housed decapodiforms; 52.2% for laboratory squid versus 20.0% in aquaria; 51.3% in laboratory cuttlefish versus 11.0% in aquaria. All octopuses and nautiluses in the study were derived from aquaria. Semelparity-associated death in Coleoidea species was identified in 22.4% of octopuses, 11.5% of cuttlefish, and 6.1% of squid. This report aims to provide an overview and reassessment of species-specific disease patterns under aquarium and laboratory management as a starting point for future developments in husbandry and disease investigation.

ДО 100-РІЧЧЯ З ДНЯ НАРОДЖЕННЯ ТАЛАНОВИТОГО ПЕДАГОГА І НАУКОВЦЯ ІВАНА ВАСИЛЬОВИЧА ШУСТА

The article deals with the 100th anniversary of the birth of Professor Ivan Vasyliovych Shust, the first doctor of biological sciences in Ternopil, the first professor of the Ternopil State Pedagogical Institute. The article presents the main points of the biography of I.V. Shust, describes his qualities as a researcher and teacher, analyses the scientific achievements of the scholar, his organizational and creative skills. Active pedagogical and educational-methodical work of professor I. Shust is a significant contribution to the formation and development of biological education at the level of higher education in Ukraine.
 Ivan Shust was born on September 19, 1921 in the village of Krasnosiltsi, Zbarazh district, Ternopil region, studied at the pedagogical college, and later at the teacher's seminary. Later he worked as a teacher at school and served in the army. He graduated from the Lviv Zoo Veterinary Institute. The young Ivan Shust studies very successfully at the institute, graduates with honours and receives an offer to stay at the Department of Anatomy and Histology of the Lviv Zoo Veterinary Institute as an assistant of the department. The desire to be closer to his parents and a favorable opportunity led Ivan Vasyliovych to move to Ternopil, where he began teaching at the Ternopil State Medical Institute. Ivan Vasyliovych was distinguished by his classical manner of teaching, and a significant level of professional knowledge. The propensity for scientific activity eventually culminated in the completion and defense of a doctoral dissertation. Active participation in the research work of the Ternopil Medical Institute contributed to the appointment of I. Shust to the position of Vice-Rector for Research [1, 6].
 The main period of professional activity of Professor I. Shust is associated with the Ternopil State Pedagogical Institute, and later the university. In 1971, Professor Shust was offered to head the recently created Department of Anatomy and Physiology of Human and Animals at the Ternopil Pedagogical Institute. As the head of the department, Ivan Vasyliovych worked on the creation and development of the foundation of scientific, pedagogical updates, interactive teaching methods, creating conditions for student research. Scientific laboratories for histochemical and electron microscopic studies were formed based on the department, with the active participation of Ivan Shust [3].
 The first doctor of biological sciences in Ternopil, the first professor of the Ternopil State Pedagogical Institute, Ivan Shust lived a long, eventful life and passed away on April 9, 2017. With his pedagogical, scientific and educational-methodical work, Professor Shust made a significant contribution to the development of the Ukrainian pedagogical and scientific school.

MOLECULAR CHARACTERIZATION OF FECAL ESCHERICHIA COLI ISOLATED FROM ZOO ANIMALS.

Accredited zoos and animal parks play an important role in animal health research and conservation, providing important insights on matters of public health including zoonotic infectious diseases and antimicrobial resistance (AMR). The emergence and spread of AMR is a complex phenomenon that jeopardizes human and animal health and also threatens the long-term survival of endangered species. The presence of β-lactamases in clinical isolates is particularly significant as they can jeopardize the efficacy of critically important antimicrobials. Although the presence of β-lactamases and extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs) producing Enterobacteriaceae in zoo animals has been reported, data are not available for northern European countries. In addition, few data are available on phylogenetic grouping of Escherichia coli isolated from zoo animals that can provide additional information on the host-bacterium relationship and on the pathogenicity of isolates. This study aimed to characterize fecal E. coli isolated from 33 healthy zoo animals from 22 species in Ireland, using conventional and molecular microbiological methods. All E. coli isolates were ampicillin resistant, but combined resistance to amoxicillin and clavulanic acid was not detected. Three E. coli isolates sampled from one Amur tiger, one Bornean orangutan, and one Southern white rhino were multidrug resistant, and blaTEM was detected in E. coli recovered from the Amur tiger and the Bornean orangutan. Other β-lactamases, including ESBLs and AmpCs and plasmid-mediated mcr-1 and mcr-2, were not detected. Overall, E. coli isolates investigated were susceptible to the majority of the antimicrobials tested, and only two animals shed E. coli carrying β-lactamase-encoding genes. The majority of isolates belonged to phylogenetic group B1. The screening of the AMR phenotype and genotype of zoo animal E. coli provides useful data that is relevant to antimicrobial stewardship in the zoo veterinary services and relevant to the bank of knowledge needed for tackling AMR.

Spreading zoo animal diseases: Has Al Ain Zoo developed an effective program to deal with the threat?

Subject Area Strategic management, operation management, health and safety Study Level/Applicability The authors have been developed the case to be applied for a diploma, undergraduate students and it might help the students in the postgraduate. The case is appropriate for courses in the area of strategic management, operation management and health and safety. Learning outcomes The learning outcomes are as follows: to understand the importance of animal disease prevention and the correct procedures for dealing with disease outbreaks in an animal facility; to reinforce the importance of adherence to strict procedures and chain of command by Life Sciences and Conservation sections in preserving the health of animals, zoo staff and visitors; to recognize the importance of disease monitoring and control in wildlife conservation; and to understand the importance of concrete experience in related positions to provide leaders like Director Mark Craig with the skills to handle such a big responsibility. Al Ain Zoo has such leaders along with a dedicated and resourceful management team that has proven capable of placing the institution among the best conservation parks in the world. Case overview/synopsis Large collections of animals of diverse species found in zoos and animal parks present a considerable challenge to facility managers in developing and implementing programs to prevent and control the spread of animal diseases. One need to only think about the nightmare consequences of an illness that could decimate a population of animals in a public setting such as a zoo and, in a worst-case scenario, spread to staff, visitors and even the public at large. Biologists have clearly shown how certain types of animals can act as reservoirs for disease viruses, for example, chimpanzees harboring the simian immunodeficiency virus that mutated to HIV or chickens and ducks spreading avian influenza virus to poultry workers and then to the public. Thus, disease control in zoos is an issue of the utmost importance, and managers and operators neglect it at their peril. The reputation and indeed the very existence of an animal park rests in the hands of a dedicated group of managers, veterinarians and technical staff, as well as zoo workers who must strictly follow procedures to prevent and contain animal-borne diseases. This case study focuses on the work of one man in a large internationally known facility to develop, implement, test and evaluate an innovative program for animal disease control. So, what would you do if you were the director of a large metropolitan zoo and your staff veterinarian came to you and said that there was an outbreak of a serious viral disease among a group of animals? Could you have prevented the disease? How will you treat the sick animals and stop the disease from spreading? Is there a risk of the zoo staff contracting the disease from handling sick animals? What about zoo visitors? These are all questions that are addressed in this new and intriguing case study focused on managing animal diseases in the setting of a zoo or wildlife park. Mark Craig, Director of Life Sciences at the Al Ain Zoo in the United Arab Emirates, has plenty to say about the planning, science and management skills necessary to insure that a large population of diverse wild animals remains healthy and thriving. The Al Ain Zoo is the largest of its kind in the Middle East, and while he has been in charge of the animal welfare program for more than six years, there have been few incidents of disease and all have been contained. What can be learned from his effective strategies and leadership skills is clearly discussed and illustrated in this unique real-world case study. Complexity academic level The authors have developed the case to be applied for a diploma, undergraduate students and it might help the students in the postgraduate. The case is appropriate for courses in the area of strategic management, operation management and health and safety. Supplementary materials Teaching notes are available upon request for educators only. These teaching notes should be shared solely with the instructor and students should not have access to. Please contact your library to gain login or email support@emeraldinsight.com to request teaching notes. Subject code CSS 11: Strategy.

BIOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS OF QUAIL EGGS AND BLOOD WITH FEED ADDITIVES APPLICATION

The aim of the experiment was to study the effect of Echinacea pallida phytobiotic additives on the eggs and blood biochemical composition. Echinacea pallida is becoming more widespread in medicine and zoo veterinary as therapeutic and prophylactic medic

Stress state and immunological status of young pigs

The paper presents the results of studies on the effect of regrouping of piglets at different ages on the resistance of their organisms, immunological status, productive qualities and safety of young pigs. The work was performed at “Stas” LLC on large white breed pigs and their crossbreeds. For the experiment, three groups of piglets were formed from suckling sows — analogues. In the experiment 60 animals from birth up to two months of age were used, 20 animals in each experimental group. The control group of piglets was raised from birth up to 60 days of age in nests, and then they were moved to the rearing workshop; Experimental 1 group was kept up to 10 days old in nests, and then a one-time rearrangement was performed according to live weight. Piglets from experimental group 2 were regrouped according to live weight at 5, 10, 15, 21, 30 days of age. To assess the natural resistance of piglets due to the above groups, hematological, biochemical (total protein, protein fractions) methods, immunological (immunoglobulins of classes IgA, IgM, IgG), and natural resistance (bactericidal activity of blood serum) were used, serum lysozyme activity (LASK), phagocytic neutrophil activity (FAN), phagocytic index (FI), ethological, zootechnical, mathematical. To assess the natural resistance of piglets the following research methods were used: generally accepted zoo veterinary methods (live weight, morbidity, safety), hygienic (microclimate conditions, sanitary regime), hematological (morphological blood composition), biochemical (total protein, protein fractions), immunological (immunoglobulins of classes IgA, IgM, IgG), natural resistance (bactericidal activity of blood serum), ethological and mathematical methods. Results of work. It was found that when growing piglets, nesting, without moving, caused their growth and development without any noticeable physiological disturbances, both from the blood and ethology. In animals (Experimental-1 groups) which underwent a single regrouping in a 10 day reward, their lag in live weight by 12.65% was recorded, compared with the control, with two and three-time movement (Experimental-2) — by 16.10%. Their SSPs were 28% less and 14.7% lower than in the control piglets. Patients with symptoms of diarrhea were identified in the control: in 3–4 daily reimbursement — 1%, in Experimental-1 — 5%, Experimental-2 — 10–15%. The resistance of young animals to gastrointestinal diseases according to the Melenberg coefficient in the Experimental-2 group was 6.13–7.48, in control group it was 0.34, and the safety did not exceed 80.2%. According to the level of immune status, animals from Experimental-2 group were inferior: by BASK — by 25.15% (28 days of age), by LASK — by 7.56%, by FAN — by 10.7% compared with peers from Experimental-1 groups. By the number of eosinophils (Experimental-2 group), characterizing the stress state of piglets, their decrease was observed within 10–12 days, not more than 5 days — in animals from Experimental-1 group and up to 3 days — from control

Work and Challenge as Zoo Veterinarian

私は動物園獣医師として10年程働いてきた。私の働いている環境は，特別恵まれた環境ではなく，極めて一般的な環境で，経験できる症例の数も限られるし，扱えるお金の額も多くない。しかし，そのような環境でも，いくつかの実績を論文として残すことができた。主には動物園で飼育動物の診療を行う傍らで経験した症例に関する論文と，神奈川県からの委託事業で横浜市が行っている傷病鳥獣保護事業で得た知見を論文にしたものがある。加えて，わずかではあるが，動物園で働く飼育員の論文投稿を手伝うこともできた。なぜ論文の作成にこだわるかというと，動物園では経験できる事柄が限られ，しかも過去の報告を調べても十分な情報を得られることが少ない。それ故に，論文として情報を広く公開することは非常に重要で，その情報が誰かの助けになるかもしれないし，あるいは新たな知見を得る手掛かりになるかもしれない。動物園や水族館では新たなことに挑戦する機会が多いと思うが，挑戦した事柄を論文として残し，広く知ってもらうことが大切だと考えている。こういった点で私自身は多少なりとも動物園や野生動物医学の発展に貢献できたのではないかと思っている。そして，今後もその努力を続けていきたいと考えている。

Wildlife and zoo nursing at The Nest Te Kōhanga (Wellington Zoo Hospital)

ABSTRACTThis is a review of volunteering as a veterinary nurse at The Nest Te Kōhanga, Wellington Zoo, with the focus on conservation, sustainable practices and the difficulties that come with zoo and wildlife nursing in terms of evidence-based research. Many similarities can be found between the job roles of a small animal veterinary nurse and a wildlife or zoo veterinary nurse, and these are discussed.

Presentation and prognostic indicators for free-living black cockatoos (Calyptorhynchus spp.) admitted to an Australian zoo veterinary hospital over 10 years.

The veterinary records of three species of free-living, endangered black cockatoos (Calyptorhynchus spp.; n = 565) admitted to the Perth Zoo Veterinary Hospital in Western Australia during a 10-yr period (2000-09) were analyzed to determine the effect of clinical presentation and treatment on survival to release. The most-common reason for admission was trauma (at least 76.7% of cases), and trauma was also the most-frequent finding on necropsy examination (80.1% of cases). Anemia and paralysis-paresis were significant factors determining the decreased likelihood of survival of cockatoos undergoing rehabilitation. Human activities, in particular vehicle strike, were significant causes of morbidity and mortality in free-living black cockatoo populations.

Asian Society of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine: A Possible Core Organization of Wildlife Disease Surveillance Network in East Asia and Oceania

The Asian Society of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine (ASZWM) was officially founded in 2006 as a scientific body and accredited by the Asian Association of Veterinary School. An annual meeting is held every year. Participants from 20 countries have given around 600 presentations so far. Establishing a zoo veterinarian network among Asian countries has been one of the main subjects in the past meetings. As the next step in developing and sustaining an Asian network of conservation medicine and zoo and wildlife medicine, the society board has decided to start certifying a diploma. Thus, in 2012, the Asian College of Conservation Medicine was established under the society board as the diploma accreditation body. In addition, the society will take on a role as the Asian geographic section of the Wildlife Disease Association. In the scenario mentioned above, ASZWM could become a core organization of the wildlife disease surveillance network in East Asia and Oceania.

ERYSIPELAS IN A NUMBAT (MYRMECOBIUS FASCIATUS)

An adult, female numbat (Myrmecobius fasciatus) was submitted to the Perth Zoo Veterinary Department for postmortem examination in November 2011. This radio-collared wild numbat had been found dead in the Dryandra Woodland, 191 km southeast of Perth, Western Australia. On external examination, the body condition was good. Three ticks (Ixodes spp.) were found on the thoracic region. The external pouch was contaminated with dirt and palpably flocculent, and the nipples oozed a purulent material. Histopathology showed widespread fibrin thrombi containing bacterial microcolonies within interstitial vessels of the mammary gland with surrounding necrotic tissue. Bacterial microcolonies were present throughout the kidney, intestine, lung, and mammary tissue, and culture produced a moderate growth of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae. Although erysipelas has been reported as a cause of morbidity and mortality in marsupials, this is the first report of erysipelas in the order Dasyuromorphia (marsupial carnivores) and highlights the need for ongoing surveillance for causes of disease in wild numbats and species recovery programs.

Ten‐minute chat

John Lewis has been a full‐time zoo and wildlife vet for the past 27 years, working in a variety of zoo and field situations in an equally wide variety of countries. He is a partner in the nternational Zoo Veterinary Group and a co‐founder of the UK charity Wildlife Vets International (www.wildlifevetsinternational.org), which provides specialist veterinary services to conservation projects. John's particular interests are the conservation of the larger cat species and anaesthesia of non‐domestic animals.

Problems encountered in treatment of a Hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibius

Even though the hippopotamus is not on the list However, chemical restraint and anaesthesia of of endangered species, its numbers have drastically hippopotamus possesses significant difficulties to the reduced in last few decades. So, various conservation zoo/wildlife veterinarian due to its large size, amphibious activities have been taken up for hippopotamus of habits, thick skin and aggressive demeanor (Morris et. which proper treatment is an important aspect. The al., 2001). Transient apneustia may result from present paper deals with the problems accompanied administration of intravenous ketamine hydrochloride. with treatment of a hippopotamus. Bradycardia and hypotension are predictable side effects resulting from the use of combination of Case history and clinical observation detomidine, butorphanol and isoflurane (Morris et. al., 2001). The mortality with combination of etorpine, A male hippopotamus “Varun” aged about 22 scoline and azaperone and combination of etorpine and years at the Nandankanan Zoological Park was found azaperone combination may approach 25-35% and 35% dull, depressed and anorectic by the animal keeper respectively. Supportive or reversal drugs have to be since last two days. Treatment by the zoo veterinarian given intramuscularly as there are no superficial veins could not improve the condition. Instead the dart (Stoskopf and Bishop, 1978) are to be found in this remained attached to the body of the hippopotamus. species due to the thick skin and once established, is Then the case was referred to the surgery department easily lost if a limb is moved. It is often difficult to of College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, monitor vital signs mainly due to the fact that the thick Bhubaneswar. History revealed that the water of the hide and large size tends to complicate visualization of water body in the hippo's premises had been changed respiration and cardiac auscultations. Over and above, before two days. On further investigation it was found sedation and recumbancy in hippopotamus results in that, this time the hippopotamus had been for a little hypoventilation which further leads to hypoxemia and longer on the ground than usual as the cleaning of the hypercapnea (Morris et. al., 2001). There are also water body took little bit longer. chances that the hippopotamus may move into the Treatment and Discussion water body after administration of anaesthesia which may result in drowning of the animal. There is also All attempts of luring the animal with feed possibility that the dart needle may become blocked by materials were failed. Hippopotamus is reported to be a plug of skin. So, chemical restraint though thought of one of the most dangerous animals alive, killing more et. al. could not be performed. humans per year than the crocodile (Morris , However, on the next day morning it was 2001). Their bulky and clumsy appearance belies the observed that the darts were absent on the hippo's body fact that they can be very agile and can run faster than and its condition is improving. So, the previous expected. So, with sufficient precautions, physical treatment was continued for another day. The hippopomethods of restraint were also attempted but all was in tamus had an uneventful recovery. vain, instead the hippopotamus became more aggressive. Being an amphibious animal, hippopotamus But there was immediate need of treatment. So, spend most of the day submerged in water pools and antibiotic, liver extract and multivitamin injection mostly defecate and urinate in water bodies. So, were administered intramuscularly. However, again cleaning of the water body is essentially performed as the darts remain fixed to the body. So, chemical a routine measure in zoos. The water balance of the immobilization of the hippopotamus was thought of to hippopotamus gets easily disturbed when they are kept remove the darts and to arrive at a proper diagnosis.

Essential veterinary education in zoological and wildlife medicine: a global perspective

The current veterinary curriculum leaves graduates ill-equipped for careers in the field of zoological and wildlife medicine. Further postgraduate training is required to be an effective zoo or wildlife veterinarian. However, whether or not students choose to specialise in this field at a later date, the veterinary curriculum should cover several issues that are related to wildlife and zoo animals, including conservation biology, zoology, behaviour, physiology and conservation medicine. These subjects are essential, as we are preparing students to work in a world in which there is a global trade in wild animals, an increasing number of emerging infectious diseases and numerous environmental threats (habitat fragmentation, climate change) linked to anthropogenic change. Veterinary students should also be exposed to new opportunities to identify field and laboratory tools for the management and possible treatment of diseases in captive and wild populations and ecosystems using both in situ and ex situ approaches to conservation.

Of Birds, People (and Coffee): Research and Conservation in Costa Rica

I am a wildlife veterinarian and currently a doctoral candidate at the University of Georgia’s (UGA) Odum School of Ecology. Years ago, I was fortunate enough to collaborate with an ecologist on a study on tapirs (Tapirus bairdii) in a stretch of lowland rainforest in Costa Rica. That opened up a world for me and set me on a path towards my current professional passion: to merge veterinary medicine with an ecological perspective, in particular towards applied conservation. However, I felt I was missing the tools to truly take the host-pathogen interactions I had learned in veterinary school to the population, community, or landscape level, which an advanced ecology degree could offer. The general theme of my dissertation work revolves around how human-altered landscapes affect disease dynamics. In specific, I am investigating how shade-grown coffee plantations influence the biodiversity, abundance, and health of wild birds. Shadegrown coffee (or ‘‘bird-friendly’’ coffee) is a method by which forest either is never cleared and coffee bushes are planted in between existing trees or previously cleared coffee plots are replanted with native trees. Traditional coffee plantations are monoculture operations that clear large areas of forest and replace them with coffee. This requires generous amounts of fertilizers and pesticides, because coffee is originally an understory, shade-loving plant, heavily stressed under the sun; however, it makes harvesting a lot easier. Shade-grown coffee works well in small plantations, and studies have shown that avian biodiversity is much improved in these operations, which is important in areas in Central America where neotropical migrants are running out of available habitat. These plantations also act as points of contact between forest birds and humans and their domestic animals (including free-roaming chickens), and I am particularly interested in the balance of benefits and potential problems these plantations create for wild birds. I have worked as an exotic animal and zoo veterinarian and have been an avid bird-watcher all my life, but working with wild birds in the field has given me the opportunity to really see them in their element and appreciate the issues that threaten free-ranging birds worldwide.

Salmonellosis in Wildlife: Diagnosis, Prevention, and Treatment Options for the Zoo Veterinary Technician and Wildlife Rehabilitator


 
 
 Salmonellosis is a common worldwide disease that can affect all animals, including humans. The primary mode of transmission is through direct oral ingestion of contaminated feces or through contaminated food sources. Salmonellae are small, straight, Gram–negative rods whose many serotypes fall into two main categories: those highly adapted to a specific host and those with broad host ranges. The incidence of salmonellosis has increased with the intensification of livestock production where animals are abnormally crowded and stressed. Under these conditions fecal contamination of skin or food supplies can occur. Although these situations rarely occur in natural settings, it is important to note that zoos and rehabilitation facilities can render similar stressful situations. Clinical salmonellosis manifests as primary enteritis and colitis, generalized infection (septicemia), or abortion, and can occur in all stages from peracute to chronic. A positive diagnosis of salmonellosis is based on a fecal culture of the bacteria and observed clinical signs. Salmonella spp. can be spread from wildlife to humans by improper handling of infected animals and is considered a Class 4 nosocomial pathogen. Conversely, there are documented cases in Antarctica and Africa where increasing ecotourism has resulted in higher incidences of salmonellosis in native wildlife. Clinically ill animals can be treated cautiously with an antibiotic and receive supportive care but, in severe cases, the prognosis is guarded. Use of the existing list of recommended husbandry and hygienic actions, along with the ability to detect the signs, will decrease the spread of salmonellosis in wildlife facilities and zoos to those animals under care as well as to the practitioners.
 
 

Role of the zoo veterinarian in the conservation of captive and free‐ranging wildlife

The challenges to execute wildlife conservation projects successfully have become more complex as anthropogenic changes continue to stress the planet, changing wild lands. As the wild becomes less so, more species are placed in captivity to improve their chances of long‐term survival, while concurrently management (and medicine) for free‐ranging wildlife has become increasingly important. A variety of disciplines, including veterinary medicine, is now recognized as key to wildlife conservation. Although veterinarians have been involved in conservation for decades, it is only recently that their role has become more appreciated in the larger conservation community. This realization of the contributions of veterinarians has occurred at a time when disease has been recognized as significantly impacting species' conservation both in situ and ex situ. Today, veterinarians work with captive and free‐ranging animals to prevent and/or treat diseases that threaten species' survival. Most of these diseases are associated with the increasing human footprint. In this paper, I present wildlife health in today's world and the zoo veterinarian's role in wildlife conservation.

Death at the zoo: the media, science, and reality

AbstractMedia characterizations of zoo and aquarium animal deaths were randomly monitored on the internet for a 20‐month period (September 2003–May 2005). Based on 148 samples collected, it was possible to classify articles into one of four categories, which were operationally defined: 1) dispassionate observers; 2) accusers; 3) sympathizers; and 4) balancers. In addition, with the notable exception of seven cases, all of the articles examined focused on large, charismatic mammals, such as gorillas, dolphins, lions, and elephants. Although a majority of the articles examined (70.4%) were either dispassionate and objective or sympathetic, nearly a third (29.6%) were either accusatory or attempted to balance the accusatory statements of animal rights activists with sympathetic statements from zoo professionals. Recommendations are offered for how zoos should deal with the increasing media and public interest in zoo animal deaths, including: 1) a greater commitment to studying the reasons for mortality in a wide variety of species; and 2) an increased investment in record keeping and analysis, which should allow zoos to calculate average life spans in animal populations and to monitor and assess the risk of certain lethal diseases on a real‐time basis. Comparisons are drawn between zoo veterinary practices and human medicine, which are both inexact sciences. Suggestions are made for how the public and key decision‐makers can distinguish between media reports on zoo animal deaths that are legitimate cause for concern vs. those that are sensationalist and meant to generate controversy and sell papers. A greater focus on the science of zoo animal death is necessary for accredited zoos to maintain the public's confidence in their animal care practices. Zoo Biol 0:1–15, 2006. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

The complexity of formulating diets for zoo animals: a matrix

The nutrition matrix presented here identifies a variety of factors that need to be considered when formulating diets for wild animals in captivity. The matrix is designed to be adapted so that it can be customized as required. Food consumption, nutritional requirements, health status and management constraints and opportunities are the four main categories to focus on when developing diets. Each of these categories may, in turn, be affected by other factors. (1) Food consumption is affected by the diet offered, client (zoo animal manager, keeper or veterinarian) wishes and animal preferences. (2) Nutritional requirements are defined by known species requirements and National Research Council recommendations, morphology and feeding ecology. Nutritional requirements may also be influenced by season, life‐stage, activity, health status, stress and body temperature. (3) Health status can be affected by nutritional deficiencies or toxicities in the diet offered. Certain health conditions may require specific dietary input. (4) Animal‐management protocols, such as housing, breeding opportunities and environment, are affected by other animals, food storage and preparation capacity, and feeding regime, which, in turn, can be affected by training, exercise and enrichment.