Zoo Environment Research Articles

Rates of inbreeding and genetic adaptation for populations managed as herds in zoos with a rotational mating system or with optimized contribution of parents.

This study compares two genetic management scenarios for species kept in herds, such as deer. The simulations were designed so that their results can be extended to a wide range of zoo populations. In the first scenario, the simulated populations of size 3×20, 6×40 or 20×60 (herds × animals in herd) were managed with a rotational mating (RM) scheme in which 10%, 20% or 50% of males were selected for breeding and moved between herds in a circular fashion. The second scenario was based on optimal contribution theory (OC). OC requires an accurate pedigree to calculate kinship; males were selected and assigned numbers of offspring to minimize kinship in the next generation. RM was efficient in restriction of inbreeding and produced results comparable with OC. However, RM can result in genetic adaptation of the population to the zoo environment, in particular when 20% or less males are selected for rotation and selection of animals is not random. Lowest rates of inbreeding were obtained by combining OC with rotation of males as in the RM scheme. RM is easy to implement in practice and does not require pedigree data. When full pedigree is available, OC management is preferable.

Behavioural Repertoires and Time Budgets of Semi-Free-Ranging and Captive Groups of Wedge-Capped Capuchin Monkeys, Cebus olivaceus, in Zoo Exhibits in Venezuela

The behavioural repertoires and time budgets of 2 captive groups and 1 semi-free-ranging group of Cebus olivaceus were determined with the aim to assess the impact of the zoo environment on behaviour. The repertoires were qualitatively similar between groups and to those reported for wild troops, but the captive groups showed self-directed and stereotyped behaviours not reported in the wild. The differences in repertoires between groups were easily associated with the opportunity to interact directly with the visitors, with particularities of the enclosure and with the severity of confinement. Overall, females spent more time foraging than males in the 2 captive groups, and adults rested and watched more than subadults in all the groups. Time budgets were dominated by foraging, resting, movement and affiliative interactions, but their relative importance varied between groups, with foraging being especially prominent in the most confined group. The time budgets also varied qualitatively from those reported for wild troops. We conclude the species is behaviourally able to adjust to captivity, but the slight differences along the continuum from wild to semi-free to captive are suggestive of mild stress or social tension probably due to unstimulating environmental conditions, high visitor pressure and deviations from typical sex-age group composition.

Project MOSI: rationale and pilot‐study results of an initiative to help protect zoo animals from mosquito‐transmitted pathogens and contribute data on mosquito spatio–temporal distribution change

Mosquito‐borne pathogens pose major threats to both wildlife and human health and, largely as a result of unintentional human‐aided dispersal of their vector species, their cumulative threat is on the rise. Anthropogenic climate change is expected to be an increasingly significant driver of mosquito dispersal and associated disease spread. The potential health implications of changes in the spatio–temporal distribution of mosquitoes highlight the importance of ongoing surveillance and, where necessary, vector control and other health‐management measures. The World Association of Zoos and Aquariums initiative, Project MOSI, was established to help protect vulnerable wildlife species in zoological facilities from mosquito‐transmitted pathogens by establishing a zoo‐based network of fixed mosquito monitoring sites to assist wildlife health management and contribute data on mosquito spatio–temporal distribution changes. A pilot study for Project MOSI is described here, including project rationale and results that confirm the feasibility of conducting basic standardized year‐round mosquito trapping and monitoring in a zoo environment.

Measurement of visitors' satisfaction with public zoos in Korea using importance-performance analysis

Understanding the demands and satisfaction levels of zoo visitors becomes indispensable to sustain a flow of visitors in the increasingly competitive tourism market. This research assessed the importance and performance of the service and facilities attributes in order to measure visitor satisfaction using an importance-performance analysis (IPA). Results of the questionnaire survey of 697 visitors at six public zoos in Korea indicated that convenience and safety in observing animals were important to visitors, and children were a particularly significant motivator for zoo visits. Although attributes related to animal welfare and information-seeking had low importance and low performance in the IPA results, they were identified as the key determinants affecting overall satisfaction in the regression analysis. In order to enhance visitors' satisfaction levels, more efforts are required to improve zoo environment and animal welfare, in addition to developing diverse educational programs that can maximize the intrinsic nature and quality of zoos.

Arthropod-borne pathogens circulating in free-roaming domestic cats in a zoo environment in Brazil

Recently, tick and flea-borne pathogens have been detected in wild carnivores maintained in captivity in Brazilian zoos. Since free-roaming cats are frequently found in Brazilian zoos, they could act as reservoirs for arthropod-borne pathogens, which could be transmitted to endangered wild carnivores maintained in captivity in these institutions. On the other hand, stray cats in zoos may play a role as sentinels to pathogens that circulate among wild animals in captivity. The present work aimed to detect the presence of Anaplasmataceae agents, hemoplasmas, Bartonella species, piroplasmas, and Hepatozoon sp. DNA in blood samples of 37 free-roaming cats in a Brazilian zoo. Three (8%) cats were positive for Anaplasma spp. closed related to Anaplasma phagocytophilum; 12 (32%) cats were positive for hemoplasmas [two (5%) for Mycoplasma haemofelis, five (13.5%) for Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum, and five (13.5%) for Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis]; 11 (30%) were positive for Bartonella spp., six (16%) were positive Babesia vogeli and one (3%) for Theileria sp. Coinfection with multiple arthropod-borne agentes was observed in sampled cats. None of sampled cats were positive for Ehrlichia spp., Cytauxzoon spp., or Hepatozoon spp. in PCR. This is the first molecular detection of Babesia vogeli and Theileria sp. in domestic cats in Brazil. The control of the population of free-roaming cats in these conservation institutions is much needed aiming to prevent the potential transmission to endangered wild animals maintained in captivity, such as wild neotropical wild felids, as well as to human beings visiting zoos.

The impact of cognitive testing on the welfare of group housed primates.

Providing cognitive challenges to zoo-housed animals may provide enriching effects and subsequently enhance their welfare. Primates may benefit most from such challenges as they often face complex problems in their natural environment and can be observed to seek problem solving opportunities in captivity. However, the extent to which welfare benefits can be achieved through programmes developed primarily for cognitive research is unknown. We tested the impact of voluntary participation cognitive testing on the welfare of a socially housed group of crested macaques (Macaca nigra) at the Macaque Study Centre (Marwell Zoo). First, we compared the rate of self-directed and social behaviours on testing and non-testing days, and between conditions within testing days. Minimal differences in behaviour were found when comparing testing and non-testing days, suggesting that there was no negative impact on welfare as a result of cognitive testing. Lipsmacking behaviours were found to increase and aggressive interaction was found to decrease in the group as a result of testing. Second, social network analysis was used to assess the effect of testing on associations and interactions between individuals. The social networks showed that testing subjects increased their association with others during testing days. One interpretation of this finding could be that providing socially housed primates with an opportunity for individuals to separate from the group for short periods could help mimic natural patterns of sub-group formation and reunion in captivity. The findings suggest, therefore, that the welfare of captive primates can be improved through the use of cognitive testing in zoo environments.

Diet review and change for monkeys at Paignton Zoo Environmental Park

Between 2003 and 2010 the diets of all medium-sized monkeys at Paignton Zoo Environmental Park were subjected to a continual process of review and improvement. This resulted in the removal of all fruit, bread, eggs and seeds from the diets and changes to commercial products used for some species. All species are now provided with similar diets consisting of a suitable commercial pelleted feed, a variety of fresh vegetables and small amounts of dog biscuits and cooked brown rice to provide opportunities for scatter feeding. Compared with the 2003 diets the 2010 diets have higher levels of protein (3–47% increase) and fibre (36–77% more NDF) and lower levels of readily digestible carbohydrate (6–14% decrease). Resultant health benefits have been improved dental health and weight loss in some previously overweight individuals. In addition, the 2010 diets are also considerably less expensive than the 2003 diets resulting in an estimated annual cost saving of £9717 based on current prices and animals held.

Individual and environmental factors associated with stereotypic behavior and fecal glucocorticoid metabolite levels in zoo housed polar bears

Polar bears (Ursus maritimus) are known to exhibit repetitive pacing behaviors, usually described as stereotypic, in zoo environments. However, little quantitative information exists about the prevalence of pacing in the zoo population. Similarly, large, multi-institutional studies conducted to determine the relationship between stereotypic behavior in zoo polar bears and environmental/husbandry variables using corticoids as a measure of stress are lacking. The study reported here includes data from 55 bears housed in 20 North American zoos. Individual and zoo characteristics were collected and behavior and fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGM) were measured over a one-year period. Using an epidemiological approach, individual and facility level multiple linear regression models were constructed to determine the nature, strength and significance of environmental/husbandry variables and temperament (measured using a standardized novel object behavior test) on stereotypic pacing and FGM. We found zoo polar bears performed stereotypic pacing behavior during 14% of the day; the proportion rose to 22% when expressed as a percentage of time engaged in locomotory behavior. However, considerable variation in proportion of stereotypy was observed. Variables associated with reduced pacing at zoos were: enrichment, number of bears in the group, and bears having a view out of their exhibit with a strong suggestion that the existence of a positive reinforcement training program may also be important. Among individuals, bears whose temperament measured high on the “interest” axis (defined in terms of behavior directed toward the novel object) tended to display less stereotypic behavior and those that scored high on the “slow to approach” axis displayed more pacing. We found higher FGM levels were associated with higher proportions of stereotypic pacing, lower levels of the temperament variable “interest” and smaller dry land exhibit area. These results support other studies suggesting polar bears are particularly prone to stereotypic pacing behavior in zoos and that there is a link between stress (measured as FGM) and pacing in zoo polar bears. These findings also suggest that some easily available tools, namely environmental enrichment and possibly positive reinforcement training, can effectively reduce the incidence of these behaviors. Exhibit designers should take note that providing bears with a view out of their exhibit and larger land areas are associated with both behavioral and physiological benefits. Finally, certain temperaments are associated with elevated levels of both stereotypic behavior and corticoids. This information may provide a tool for proactively identifying the individuals most likely to develop pacing behaviors and providing appropriately enhanced care before the behavior becomes established.

Seasonal and Diurnal Variations in African Elephant (Loxodonta africana) and Black Rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) Behavior in a Northern Climate Zoo

African elephants (Loxodonta africana) and black rhinoceroses (Diceros bicornis) are charismatic mammals that help draw visitors into zoological institutions. Because they evolved in the same habitat utilizing similar food resources, the two species have many physiological similarities yet behaviorally remain very different. Limitations of the zoo environment, such as constraints on exhibit size, social complexity, and behavior, may be associated with health and behavioral problems seen in both species and thought to be exacerbated in northern, temperate climates. The purpose of this study was to determine how the behavioral patterns of two large-bodied African ungulate species were affected by seasonal changes in a northern climate zoo. The behavior of three African elephants and three black rhinoceroses was observed for one year at Cleveland Metroparks Zoo. We found average resting levels of African elephants and black rhinos were similar to expected values based on data from wild and captive studies. Both species adapted their behavior to cope with high temperatures and increased sun exposure. Increased time spent inside during winter months was associated with decreased investigatory behaviors in elephants and decreased locomotion in rhinos. To increase species-typical behaviors, exhibits should include substrates for dusting, mud wallows, shade structures, and resting sites for all individuals. Time spent feeding may be increased through natural food items such as browse. Indoor exhibits should include environmental variation, enrichment, and adequate space so as to encourage these behaviors. Physiological and health measurements might be measured to determine sufficient levels of exercise for zoo-housed elephants and rhinos.// //

A Case Study: The Effect of Visitors on Two Captive Pumas With Respect to the Time of the Day

This study analyzed the effects of noise levels and number of visitors on the behaviors of a mother puma and her daughter in a zoo environment with respect to the time of day. The study monitored visitation (noise and number) over two 1-week periods (4 weeks between periods) and frequency of various puma behaviors (videorecorded). The study analyzed videotaped behavior of the pumas based on the time of day and visitors' number and noise levels. There was a direct association of puma behaviors with visitors' number and noise levels. The daughter puma was the most affected and behavioral changes of both pumas correlated more strongly with the noise level than the number of visitors. The noise level and number of visitors affected the behavior of the mother and her daughter only in the morning. The results of this study indicate that both noise level and number of visitors affected these pumas but revealed the noise as predominant. Moreover, the response of these pumas to visitors depended on the time of the day.

A Book for All Zoos

Wild Mammals in Captivity. Principles and Techniques for Zoo Management . 2nd edition . D. G. Kleiman , K. V. Thompson , and C. Kirk Baer , editors. 2010. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, U.S.A. 548 pp. $85 (hardcover). ISBN 978-0-226-44009-5. For those of us interested in captive animal management practices or the effect of zoos and aquariums on current conservation efforts, this volume is essential. There has never been a greater need for species-based conservation action. Nearly one-quarter of the world's mammal species are threatened with extinction by climate change and rapidly increasing human pressures. Zoos and aquariums are well positioned to participate in animal conservation and recovery programs. The zoo community works well together and contributes substantially to the maintenance of threatened species through increasingly successful captive breeding and management programs. Zoos and aquariums also raise public awareness about the need for conservation through continually evolving exhibit design. Since 1991, members of the Association of Zoos and Aquariums have contributed nearly $US5.0 million to 280 conservation projects worldwide. There has been an increased emphasis on raising money to support in situ conservation and providing equipment, training, and other forms of capacity-building skills (e.g., educational outreach and fund raising in support of field work). The Association of Zoos and Aquariums estimates that in the United States over 143 million people visit zoos and aquariums annually. The World Association of Zoos and Aquariums estimates that over 600 million people visit zoos annually worldwide. This presents an enormous opportunity to raise public awareness about critical losses of biological diversity, influence public behavior to lessen the human footprint, tell the story about how zoos and aquariums are responding to the species loss, and inspire the public to contribute monetarily to conservation activities. The first edition of Wild Mammals in Captivity, published in 1996, summarized for the first time the modern means and methods for the exhibition and management of mammals in a zoo environment. The second edition is a thorough and thoughtful update of the original. Like the first edition, the second is not a recipe for the management of mammals; rather, it is a primer that explains basic principles and provides overviews of a broad range of topics relevant to the care of mammals in captivity. In the new edition, the editors draw on their own extensive expertise and that of 78 professionals in the field. Over 75% of the chapters and appendixes contain substantially new content, and other chapters present material with intriguing new insights. This volume is less theoretical and more management oriented than the previous edition. The contributing authors represent a much broader representation of the international zoo community compared with the 1996 edition. Although the second edition, like its predecessor, is primarily intended for the zoo and aquarium community, conservation professionals will find much of the book relevant to their work as well. As in the previous edition, the second is divided into seven parts—Ethics and Animal Welfare, Basic Mammal Management, Nutrition, Exhibitry, Conservation and Research, Behavior, Reproduction—and is followed by four appendixes. Part 5, Conservation and Research, will be of particular interest to conservation professionals. Research in zoos and aquariums has been conducted for many years and is well respected. The participation of zoos and aquariums in conservation is a much more recent development. This section provides detailed reviews of the demographic and genetic management of captive mammal populations; regional collection planning; methods for the selection of species for ex situ conservation efforts; management of surplus animals, which can be the unfortunate result of successful captive breeding programs; role of captive breeding in reintroduction programs; and research trends and the role of zoos in contributing to in situ conservation. Wild Mammals in Captivity provides a valuable summary and comprehensive description of current zoo practices. By drawing on the writings of many different authors, the book is especially successful at offering a variety of perspectives. Sadly, the senior editor, Devra Kleiman, passed away just before publication. Dedicated to her memory, the book memorializes her important contributions to the fields of animal behavior and conservation. The zoo and conservation communities owe a tremendous debt to Kleiman and her coeditors for their efforts to assemble such a vast amount of theoretical and practical knowledge about mammals in captivity in a single volume.

The Accuracy of Behavioural Data Collected by Visitors in a Zoo Environment: Can Visitors Collect Meaningful Data?

Volunteer data collection can be valuable for research. However, accuracy of such data is often a cause for concern. If clear, simple methods are used, volunteers can monitor species presence and abundance in a similar manner to professionals, but it is unknown whether volunteers could collect accurate data on animal behaviour. In this study, visitors at a Wetlands Centre were asked to record behavioural data for a group of captive otters by means of a short questionnaire. They were also asked to provide information about themselves to determine whether various factors would influence their ability to collect data. Using a novel analysis technique based on PCA, visitor data were compared to baseline activity budget data collected by a trained biologist to determine whether visitor data were accurate. Although the response rate was high, visitors were unable to collect accurate data. The principal reason was that visitors exceeded the observation time stated in the instructions, rather than being unable to record behaviours accurately. We propose that automated recording stations, such as touchscreen displays, might prevent this as well as other potential problems such as temporal autocorrelation of data and may result in accurate data collection by visiting members of the public.

Environmental enrichment for a mixed‐species nocturnal mammal exhibit

Environmental enrichment (EE) is an integral aspect of modern zoo animal management but, empirical evaluation of it is biased toward species housed in single-species groups. Nocturnal houses, where several nocturnal species are housed together, are particularly overlooked. This study investigated whether three species (nine-banded armadillos, Dasypus novemcinctus; Senegal bush babies, Galago senegalensis; two-toed sloths, Choloepus didactylus) in the nocturnal house at Paignton Zoo Environmental Park, UK could be enriched using food-based and sensory EE. Subjects were an adult male and female of each species. EE was deemed effective if it promoted target species-typical behaviors, behavioral diversity, and increased use of enriched exhibit zones. Results from generalized linear mixed models demonstrated that food-based EE elicited the most positive behavioral effects across species. One set of food-based EEs (Kong®, termite mound and hanging food) presented together was associated with a significant increase in species-typical behaviors, increased behavioral diversity, and increased use of enriched exhibit zones in armadillos and bush babies. Although one type of sensory EE (scented pine cones) increased overall exhibit use in all species, the other (rainforest sounds) was linked to a significant decrease in species-typical behavior in bush babies and sloths. There were no intra or interspecies conflicts over EE, and commensalism occurred between armadillos and bush babies. Our data demonstrate that simple food-based and sensory EE can promote positive behavioral changes in a mixed-species nocturnal mammal exhibit. We suggest that both food and sensory EE presented concurrently will maximize opportunities for naturalistic activity in all species.

Speichelforschung im Zoo – Eine Hilfe zur artgemäßen Fütterung von Tierarten mit besonderer Nahrungsanpassung

Between 2008 and 2010 the Zoological gardens in Rheine, Stuttgart, Karlsruhe, Cologne and Zurich took part in a research project initiated by scientists of the Institute of Animal Science, University of Bonn. Saliva was collected from various zoo animals to determine certain dietary adaptations on enzymatic and physiological levels that might explain or change our current understanding of animal nutrition and the feeding in zoo environments. The interest was primarily focused on species with specialized nutritional needs or fermentation strategies such as geladas, chimpanzees, camels and zebras. The work produced highly valuable data especially on geladas, which, despite from their adaptation to grass diet, revealed to have the enzymatic precondition (salivary amylase) to use starch-rich food items very effectively. Therefore, to prevent obesity in captive geladas, the reduction of starchy food in their daily rations is mandatory. Finally, saliva sampling is an easy, cost-effective and non-invasive procedure, the use of which is both practical and attractive in a zoo environment. In the future, the world-wide emerging field of salivary research might give birth to new applications of saliva as a tool to detect biomarkers of physiology and diseases in zoo animals.

Transfer and Acclimatization Effects on the Behavior of Two Species of African Great Ape (Pan troglodytes and Gorilla gorilla gorilla) Moved to a Novel and Naturalistic Zoo Environment

Studying the effects of moving animals to new enclosures is of value to both captive managers and to scientists interested in the complex interplay between environment and behavior. Great apes represent some of the greatest challenges in this regard. Given the cognitive sophistication of these species and the substantial investments in new primate facilities, these investigations are particularly important. Using post-occupancy evaluation (POE) methodology, we compared behavior exhibited by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) in indoor hardscape-type exhibits to behavior of the same individuals in new naturalistic enclosures with outdoor access. In the new facility, chimpanzees showed decreases in the frequency of abnormal behaviors and visual monitoring of humans (attention behaviors) whereas gorillas exhibited reduced agonism as well as decreased attention behaviors. Both gorillas and chimpanzees demonstrated higher rates of inactivity after transfer to the new facility. All subjects in addition demonstrated transitory changes in behavior after the move to the new facility (higher rates of scratching in yr 1 than in subsequent years), indicating a period of acclimatization. Seasonal effects on feeding behavior and activity levels (both species were more active in the winter) were evident as well. The results indicate that behavioral adjustment to a new facility is an extended process for both species and that seasonal effects should be considered in longitudinal analyses of acclimatization. Behavioral patterns supported the benefits of naturalistic, functional exhibit spaces and the utility of post-occupancy evaluations in assessing captive animal welfare.

The biomechanics of leaping in gibbons

Gibbons are skilled brachiators but they are also highly capable leapers, crossing distances in excess of 10 m in the wild. Despite this impressive performance capability, no detailed biomechanical studies of leaping in gibbons have been undertaken to date. We measured ground reaction forces and derived kinematic parameters from high-speed videos during gibbon leaps in a captive zoo environment. We identified four distinct leap types defined by the number of feet used during take-off and the orientation of the trunk, orthograde single-footed, orthograde two-footed, orthograde squat, and pronograde single-footed leaps. The center of mass trajectories of three of the four leap types were broadly similar, with the pronograde single-footed leaps exhibiting less vertical displacement of the center of mass than the other three types. Mechanical energy at take-off was similar in all four leap types. The ratio of kinetic energy to mechanical energy was highest in pronograde single-footed leaps and similar in the other three leap types. The highest mechanical work and power were generated during orthograde squat leaps. Take-off angle decreased with take-off velocity and the hind limbs showed a proximal to distal extension sequence during take-off. In the forelimbs, the shoulder joints were always flexed at take-off, while the kinematics of the distal joints (elbow and wrist joints) were variable between leaps. It is possible that gibbons may utilize more metabolically expensive orthograde squat leaps when a safe landing is uncertain, while more rapid (less expensive) pronograde single-footed leaps might be used during bouts of rapid locomotion when a safe landing is more certain.

THE INTERACTIVE ZOOOZ GUIDE

GPS (Global Positioning System) technology is widely known for its ability to track down devices in real time. Combined with mobile phones, it has become a very powerful tool with a great potential for future development of mobile GPS applications. The Interactive ZooOz Guide was a final year industry project carried out by seven students from three separate courses to tackle a project that involves upgrading the Melbourne Zoo’s mapping system through the use of GPS technology. The aim of the project is to explore the potential capability of using GPS in the Zoo environment. The proposed system uses a PDA device with a GPS receiver that tracks users’ location in real time as they are touring around the Zoo. In this paper, an insight into GPS technology is briefly reviewed and the design and implementation of “Interactive ZooOZ Guide” is described. Then GUI (Graphical User Interface) is presented in detail. Finally conclusion is drawn from the “proof of concept” prototype.

Facility design for Bachelor Gorilla groups

This paper emerged from discussions following the Bachelor Gorilla 2000 Workshop Facility Design sessions. Although many ape facility design features are common to all gorillas, the purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of special needs of bachelor gorillas. For example, managing escalating aggression between maturing or silverback males may require a high degree of caregiver intervention and thus easy access to gorillas both on- and off-exhibit is beneficial. Facility design features that reduce contact aggression, increase affiliation, provide visual barriers or escape routes, and allow safe outlets for species-typical behavior are essential to the successful management of bachelor gorilla groups in zoos. Such provisions permit caregivers the ability to constantly monitor and modify the zoo environment to meet rapidly changing husbandry needs. Creatively designed habitats and continuing research on bachelor group dynamics will undoubtedly allow zoo managers to maintain all gorilla groups in an environmental and social context that enhances well-being over the long term.

Crepuscular Man-Biting Mosquitoes Of A Tropical Zoological Garden In Enugu, South-Eastern Nigeria

Ovitraps and human baits methods were used in sampling crepuscular man-biting mosquitoes of the Zoological Garden Enugu which were studied between February and July 2005. Aedes aegypti, A. albopictus, A. luteocephalus, A. vittatus and A. africanus were among the mosquitoes identified in the Zoo. However, six of the 7 Aedes mosquitoes were members of the Stegomyia subgenus while A. comminsii belonged to the Aedimorphus subgenus. Approximately 6 and 3 out of every nine mosquitoes biting man per hour during the study period were A. albopictus and A. luteocephalus respectively. The other species had less than one mosquito bite per man per hour. Excepting Anopheles gambiae, these are mainly diurnal and outdoor biters, feeding mainly during dusk hours between 4.00 and 8.00pm local time which corresponds to the time many tourists visit the Zoo. Members of the Stegomyia subgenus identified have been implicated in various yellow fever (YF) epidemics in Nigeria. Their preponderance, as well as the presence of the monkey reservoir hosts of YF virus and other Arboviruses, may make this zoological garden uncomfortable for the tourists. Proper care must be taken to ensure that the Zoo environment is not a potential source of epidemics. All water containers should be covered to prevent mosquitoes breeding in them. Discarded vehicle tyre, broken utensils, tin cans, snail and coconut shells must be properly disposed. Intermittent fogging of the Zoo environment with Pyrethrin insecticide may reduce adult mosquito population and thereby fly-man contact.

Measuring performance: environmental management systems

Climate change will have an impact on biodiversity; most modern zoos are concerned with the conservation of biodiversity and therefore have an obligation to minimize their impact on the environment, particularly their contribution to factors causing climate change. An environmental management system (EMS) is a tool to identify, measure and reduce an organization's impacts on the environment in a systematic way and to continually improve environmental performance through a four-stage cyclical method, Plan–Do–Check–Act. Paignton Zoo Environmental Park began to implement an EMS in 2003 and achieved the international standard ISO14001 for environmental management in 2005. In addition to improving environmental performance and legal compliance, and reducing environmental risk, the main advantages of the EMS have been costs savings on utilities, improved credibility and media coverage, and improved access to grant funding for ‘green’ initiatives. However, there have also been cost implications in terms of staff time, administration, financial costs in setting up the system, capital costs in investment in processes and equipment with the best environmental ratings, and additional constraints on development because environmental issues can no longer be conveniently ignored. Despite these disadvantages, the EMS has been a very effective tool for Paignton Zoo Environmental Park, enabling it to become a recognized leader in this field and truthfully to live up to its name.