Zoo Conditions Research Articles

Severe Parasite Co-Infection in a Captive Bactrian Camel: Case Report

The aim of this study was to document a case of parasite co-infection in a captive Bactrian camel and to supply morphometric data of the found pathogens. It concerned a 20-year-old male animal inhabiting Sofia Zoo, Bulgaria. A decreased appetite and gastrointestinal disorders were observed in it during the summer of 2022. Improvement in the animal’s condition was achieved after the administration of antibiotics, sulfonamides, and other symptomatic medicines. However, two weeks after treatment, clinical symptoms reappeared. Then, a diarrheal fecal sample from the animal was subjected to parasitological examination by direct smear and flotation and sedimentation techniques. Multiple infections by helminths (Trichostrongylus sp., Haemonchus sp., Oesophagostomum sp., Trichuris sp., and Dicrocoelium sp.), ciliates (Buxtonella cameli), and protozoa (Eimeria cameli) were found, with E. cameli being reported for the first time in zoo conditions. Deworming led to the recovery of the general condition and appearance of the animal’s feces, but two weeks later, it died suddenly. We considered that the parasitic infection was not the direct cause of the fatal outcome, and its presence, other health disorders, and the advanced age of the animal were among the contributing factors. This case reveals the need to combine planned preventive deworming with routine parasitological diagnostics to take timely and targeted actions to protect the health of animals inhabiting zoo facilities.

Differences in Mother-Infant Bond and Social Behavior of African Elephant Calves Living In Situ and Ex Situ.

African zoo elephants live in safe environments with sufficient resources, are protected from threats, and have their health and body conditions cared for. Calves ex situ undergo the same developmental stages as in situ and are raised by the whole family unit. However, due to environmental differences, there might be behavioral modifications between calves in situ and ex situ. We hypothesize that these differences increase with ongoing generations. This ethological study compares social and general behavior and the distance calves kept to their mothers' between calves of the first (F1) and second (F2) zoo generation and the wild. Using ethological methods, data were collected for ~90 in situ calves and 16 ex situ (8 F1, 8 F2) between the ages of 0.5 to 4 years (120 observation hours per group). Results showed that in situ calves spent significantly more time close to mothers than the F1 and the F2 zoo generations (F1/in situ: p = <0.001; F2/in situ: p = 0.007). The behaviors of eating, drinking, trunk movement, washing, and affiliative behaviors showed significant differences between in situ and ex situ calves. The amount and distribution of affiliative and agonistic behavior initiated and received by calves was displayed with a greater variety ex situ. Ex situ calves not only performed affiliative but, in contrast to the in situ, also agonistic behavior (F1/in situ: initiated p = 0.002, received p = 0.010; F2/in situ: initiated p = 0.050, received p = 0.037). The comparison of zoo generations suggests that differences did not increase with the generation. The more casual binding between mothers and offspring in zoos and the age-dependent improvement of social behavior of zoo-born calves are seen as a result of elephants' adaptation to secure zoo conditions. The results of this study agree with the faster development of ex situ African elephants, like earlier puberty and more frequent breeding patterns, as known from the literature.

Historical development of the survivorship of zoo rhinoceroses-A comparative historical analysis.

Zoo animal husbandry is a skill that should be developing constantly. In theory, this should lead to an improvement of zoo animal survivorship over time. Additionally, it has been suggested that species that are at a comparatively higher risk of extinction in their natural habitats (in situ) might also be more difficult to keep under zoo conditions (ex situ). Here, we assessed these questions for three zoo-managed rhinoceros species with different extinction risk status allocated by the IUCN: the "critically endangered" black rhino (Diceros bicornis), the "vulnerable" greater one-horned (GOH) rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis), and the "near threatened" white rhino (Ceratotherium simum). Comparing zoo animals ≥1 year of age, the black rhino had the lowest and the white rhino the highest survivorship, in congruence with their extinction risk status. Historically, the survivorship of both black and white rhino in zoos improved significantly over time, whereas that of GOH rhino stagnated. Juvenile mortality was generally low and decreased even further in black and white rhinos over time. Together with the development of population pyramids, this shows increasing competence of the global zoo community to sustain all three species. Compared to the continuously expanding zoo population of GOH and white rhinos, the zoo-managed black rhino population has stagnated in numbers in recent years. Zoos do not only contribute to conservation by propagating ex situ populations, but also by increasing species-specific husbandry skills. We recommend detailed research to understand specific factors responsible for the stagnation but also the general improvement of survivorship of zoo-managed rhinos.

The use of environmental enrichments on the meerkats' run (Suricata suricatta) in zoo conditions to eliminate aggressive behaviors

The use of environmental enrichments on the meerkats' run (Suricata suricatta) in zoo conditions to eliminate aggressive behaviors

Behavioral activity of Ursus arctos brown bear in zoo conditions

The article is devoted to observing the behavior of brown bears in a zoo using time slicing method. For each of the experimental bears, time budgets were determined - a system of indicators characterizing the distribution of time expenditures by types of use, and their detailed analysis was carried out. It is concluded that in the time budgets of the experimental bears, two forms of behavioral activities predominate: circular walking, which is a form of undesirable behavior in bears and at the same time a way of adapting to the conditions of the zoo, means to throw out the accumulated energy, and lying down is a lack of physical activity, which is most pronounced in a young female. Normal forms of locomotor activity typical of brown bears - standing on their hind legs, scratching on the grate - are less represented in zoo bears. Also, using the Shannon index, the diversity of behavior of the experimental bears was assessed. The greater diversity of behavior in the adult male than in the cubs, the authors associate with the greater adaptation of the adult bear to the conditions of the zoo.

Individual and environmental risk factors associated with fecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations in zoo-housed Asian and African elephants.

A recent large-scale welfare study in North America involving 106 Asian (Elephas maximus) and 131 African (Loxodonta africana) elephants at 64 accredited facilities identified links (i.e., risk factors) between zoo environmental factors and a number of welfare outcomes (stereotypic behavior, ovarian acyclicity, hyperprolactinemia, walking and recumbence, body condition, health status, serum cortisol). For this population of elephants, we used the same epidemiological methods to examine associations between those risk factors and two additional welfare outcomes, mean concentration and individual variability (CV) of fecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations (FGM) as indicators of stress. Results indicate that African elephants are more responsive to social stressors than Asians, and that poor joint health is a stress-related welfare problem for Asian, but not African elephants in the North American population. For both species, higher FGM concentrations were associated with zoos located at more northern latitudes, whereas lower FGM concentrations were associated with having free access to indoor/outdoor spaces, and spending more time in managed interactions with staff. Also important for captive management, elephants having diverse enrichment options and belonging to compatible social groups exhibited reduced intra-individual variability in FGM concentrations. Our findings show that aspects of the zoo environment can be potential sources of stress for captive elephants, and that there are management activities that may facilitate coping with zoo conditions. Given species differences in factors that affected FGM, targeted, species-specific management approaches likely are needed to ensure good welfare for all elephants.

Elephant body mass cyclicity suggests effect of molar progression on chewing efficiency

Elephants do not replace deciduous teeth once with permanent teeth as most mammals, but replace a single cheek tooth per jaw-side five times in their lives in a process called molar progression. While this gradual process has been well-documented for the purpose of age determination, a less-considered possible side effect of this progression is that functional chewing surface fluctuates, being larger when two cheek teeth are both partially in use and smaller when only one cheek tooth is used fully. We found that body mass of both breeding and non-breeding female zoo elephants (Elephas maximus, Loxodonta africana) shows a cyclic undulation with peaks separated by many years, which is therefore unrelated to reproduction or annual seasonality. We propose variation in functional chewing surface, resulting chewing efficiency, and resulting increased food intake and/or digestive efficiency as the underlying cause. As elephants reproduce all year-round and thus are not synchronized in their molar progression pattern, climate-related fluctuations in resource availability are likely to mask this pattern in free-ranging animals. In contrast, it emerges under the comparatively constant zoo conditions, and illustrates the relevance of the dental apparatus for herbivorous mammals. The combination of variable chewing efficiency and resource availability in free-ranging elephants may render these species particularly prone to reported inter-individual fitness differences.

Seasonal mortality in zoo ruminants.

While seasonality has often been investigated with respect to reproduction, seasonality of mortality has received less attention. We investigated whether a seasonal signal of mortality exists in wild ruminants kept in zoos, using data from 60,591 individuals of 88 species. We quantified the mortality in the 3 consecutive months with the highest above-baseline mortality (3 MM). 3 MM was not related to relative life expectancy of species, indicating that seasonal mortality does not necessarily impact husbandry success. Although 3 MM was mainly observed in autumn/winter months, there was no evidence for an expected negative relationship with the latitude of the species' natural habitat and no positive relationship between 3 MM and the mean temperature in that habitat, indicating no evidence for species from lower latitudes/warmer climates being more susceptible to seasonal mortality under zoo conditions. 3 MM was related to reproductive biology, with seasonally reproducing species also displaying more seasonal mortality. This pattern differed between groups: In cervids, the onset of seasonal mortality appeared linked to the onset of rut in both sexes. This was less evident in bovids, where in a number of species (especially caprids), the onset of female seasonal mortality was linked to the lambing period. While showing that the origin of a species from warmer climate zones does not constrain husbandry success in ruminants in terms of an increased seasonal mortality, the results suggest that husbandry measures aimed at protecting females from rutting males are important, especially in cervids. Zoo Biol. 36:74-86, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Ethologische Forschungen an Grünflügelaras (Ara chloropterus Gray, 1859) im Tierpark Hagenbeck, Hamburg – In memoriam Dr. Ralf Wanker (1961–2011)

The Hamburgian ethologist Dr. Ralf Wanker (1961-2011) together with his students started an ethological research program on a group of up to 15 Green-winged Macaws (Ara chloropterus) at Tierpark Hagenbeck, Hamburg, in 1998. Up to his sudden death in 2011 he had supervised several academic studies on this group, the results of which have not been published yet. This paper gives short summaries of six of these studies, realized between 2001 and 2009. Main topics were the social and acoustic communication of the birds as well as the conflict management and conflict avoidance within the group. The results of these studies shed light on the potentials and difficulties of keeping big macaws in groups under zoo conditions.

Standing Sedation in Captive Zebra (Equus grevyiandEquus burchellii)

Nine Grevy's zebras (Equus grevyi) and three Burchell's zebras (Equus burchellii) were immobilized in a standing position a total of 70 times for minor, nonpainful procedures over a 9-yr period. Standing sedation was successfully obtained with a combination of detomidine and butorphanol on 47 occasions (67.1%). Detomidine i.m. (median 0.10 mg/kg; range: 0.07-0.21) was administered by dart, followed 10 min later by butorphanol i.m. (median 0.13 mg/kg; range 0.04-0.24). The dosages were varied depending on the initial demeanor of the animal. On 23 occasions (32.9%), small amounts of etorphine (median 2.5 microg/kg; range 1.1-12.3 microg/kg) plus acepromazine (median 10 microg/kg; range 4.4-50 microg/kg) (as in Large Animal-Immobilon) had to be administered i.m. to gain sufficient sedation. In these latter cases, the animals were either excited or known for their aggressive character. The zebras were sufficiently immobilized for the length of most procedures (<45 min) without supplementation. At the end of the procedure, the animals were given atipamezole (2 mg per 1 mg detomidine used) and naltrexone (0.1 mg/kg) to reverse the sedative effects, irrespective of whether etorphine was used or not. Standing sedation, using the combination of the alpha-2 agonist detomidine and the partial agonist-antagonist opioid butorphanol (in some cases supplemented with etorphine + acepromazine), proved to be a very efficacious and safe method to be used in zebras under zoo conditions for short-lasting, nonpainful procedures.

Exposure to humans and activity pattern of European souslik (Spermophilus citellus) in zoo conditions

European souslik (Spermophilus citellus) is an endangered species being the subject of reintroduction plan in some European countries, including Poland. It is important to obtain data about behavior of reintroduced species, especially a reaction to captivity of specimens prepared to release. The aim of this study was to evaluate influence of human exposure on sousliks behavior. Observed animals were kept in Poznań zoo in three enclosures. Two of them (called "high noise") were in part of the zoo available to the visitors, whereas one ("low noise") was in part closed for them. In "high noise" enclosures sousliks spent more time outside burrows and more specimens were present above ground. They also ate and ran more frequently in "high noise" enclosure, whereas emitted loud voices more often in the "low noise" one. In all enclosures more animals were present above grounds in absence of humans. Time spent by one souslik above ground was positively significantly correlated with the number of sousliks outside burrows. European sousliks observed in this study were used to humans and were less vigilant if they were exposed to permanent humans presence, but they did not become tamed and behave in a way similar to free living animals.

The behaviour of the common hamster ( Cricetus cricetus) under zoo conditions

Studies on the behaviour of the common hamster are very rare and fragmentary. From August till the middle of September 2005 we observed behaviour of six individuals of the common hamster (one female and five juveniles: three males and two females) and from the second part of September till October 2005 we observed behaviour of two juvenile males after they were separated from the group. The “Focal animal sampling” was used as an observation method, and the total time of observation amounted to 75 hours. During our observation 7707 bouts of behaviour were recorded. Both social and non-social behaviour were categorised. The number of the non-social behaviour prevailed significantly over the number of the social behaviour (n=496; 6.4%). The most frequent observed non-social behaviour was: head rearing (n=2019; 28%). Among interindividual interactions “escape” (45.4%; n=225) and “vocalisation” (15.7%; n=78) were noticed most frequently. Play-fighting, direct identification, following and hugging were the only aspects of the social behaviour characteristic of the young. The behaviour repertoire of the common hamster seems to be similar to the behaviour of the golden hamster ( Mesocricetus auratus).

Equivalent inbreeding depression under laboratory and field conditions in a tree-hole-breeding mosquito.

Understanding the consequences of inbreeding has important implications for a wide variety of topics in population biology. However, most studies quantifying the effects of inbreeding are performed under artificial farm, greenhouse, laboratory or zoo conditions. Although several authors have argued that the deleterious effects of inbreeding (inbreeding depression) are likely to be more severe under natural field conditions than in artificial experimental environments, these arguments are usually speculative or based on indirect comparisons. We quantified the effects of inbreeding on fitness traits in a tree-hole-breeding mosquito Aedes geniculatus) under near-optimal laboratory conditions and in three natural tree holes. Our index of fitness (Ro) was lower in the field than in the laboratory and declined due to inbreeding in both However, environments, we found no significant interactions between inbreeding depression and environmental conditions. In both the field and laboratory a 10% increase in the inbreeding coefflicient (F) led to a 12-15) decline in fitness (Ro) These results suggest that inbreeding depression will not necessarily be more extreme under natural field conditions than in the laboratory.

Protective and territorial behavior in captive siamangs (Hylobates syndactylus)

Protective and territorial behavior was observed in 14 heterosexual pairs of adult siamangs in 11 zoos for a total of 1,155 h. The study shows that the quality of protective and territorial behavioral patterns was similar in the wild and in captivity. Under zoo conditions, the behavioral response (except calling) to conspecific and human rivals was similar. Males could be found more often at the front of the enclosure and were more active in protective and territorial behavior than were females. Males were more attentive to happenings outside their enclosures than were their mates, whereas females concentrated their protective and territorial activities on specific people or females of a conspecific group. Although the duration of each song and the average number of duet sequences as well as the temporal distribution of calling throughout the day were similar in the wild and in the zoo, the total duetting rate differed remarkably: it was much higher in captivity. Siamangs in acoustical and visual contact with neighboring conspecifics spent more time singing than did siamangs without such contacts. In captivity, pairs without young seemed to be more engaged in protective and territorial behavior patterns than were parents. Zoo Biol 16:309–325, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Growth of morelet's crocodile (crocodylus moreletii) during the first three years of life

AbstractGrowth of Crocodylus moreletii, an endangered species, was observed under protected conditions in the native range, from hatching through the third year of life. The goal of this project was to provide baseline growth data for eventual comparison with data from specimens reared in thermally controlled zoo facilities. Length increase averaged 1.6 cm/mo in our study. Under farming conditions in Mexico, however, C. moreletii increased in length by 2.4–3.0 cm/mo. Hence, we suspect that specimens raised under zoo conditions will exceed our values and approach the latter ones, as is the case for American alligators raised in controlled conditions. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

Several examinations on the reproductive status of lowland gorillas (Gorilla g. gorilla) at Hannover Zoo

AbstractThere as been no reproduction within the Hannover Zoo's gorilla group, although several adult females and a silverback male have been living together for a prolonged period. Therefore, the sexual cycle of three adult females was examined by means of total urinary estrogen excretion, measurement of the urogenital cleft length, ovulation detection with the help of the Subhuman‐Primate‐Pregnancy Test (SPPT), measurement of basal body temperature, semiquantitative blood tests to detect menstruation, and observation of sexual behavior. Fertility status of the silverback male was examined by means of behavioral observation, rectal probe ejaculation (RPE), and testicular biopsy. Sexual cyclicity was demonstrable in two females, whereas the third had an irregular occurrence of estrogen peaks and her menstruation and sexual behavior did not show normal cyclicity. The male's infertility was characterized by absence of any sexual behavior, azoospermia in repeated RPE, unsuccessful treatment with clomiphene, and atrophy of seminiferous tubules in the extirpated tissue.Several factors, such as vitamin E deficiency, humoral dysregulation, testicular hypoxy, and spermatogenic arrest, caused through stress due to inadequate shelter systems, are discussed hypothetically in regard to their possible etiological relevance with respect to infertility in this species.In many cases infertility in the gorilla male is presumably based on a polyfactoral etiology. Analysis of urinary hormone levels in parallel with behavioral studies is still to be tested as a practical method of gaining information on the puberty development of adolescent males and on the fertility status of adult males under zoo conditions.

The Evolution of Social Behavior in Dogs and Wolves

Synopsis. Patterns of behavior in the Family Canidae appear to be conservative traits in evolution. Darwin's concept of sexual selection may be broadened to social selection, in? cluding all factors in the environment which exert selection pressure. In a highly species, the environment tends to be stable, generation after generation, accounting for the stability of behavioral patterns. The evolution of behavior is also related to development, with different and sometimes opposite selection pressures acting at different periods in life. Some myths and misconceptions regarding dog-wolf behavior are described, and some problems for future research outlined. One of the things which distinguishes different members of the Family Canidae from each other is the differential develop? ment of behavior. Among the close relatives of the domestic dog, the most highly species is the wolf, and it is this characteristic which enables us to say with a good deal of certainty that dogs are most probably descended from wolves rather than from other forms, the coyote and jackal, which normally form no group larger than a mated pair or, for a brief peri? od, the litter born to this pair. In the process of preparing an ethogram for the dog we listed some 90 behavior pat? terns observed in the laboratory, nursery, and free situations (Scott and Fuller, 1965). We then examined the available descriptions of behavior of the wolf, particularly those of Murie (1944), Young and Gold? man (1944), and Schenkel (1947), and found all but 19 of the same patterns ob? served in dogs. Most of the missing ones were minor patterns of behavior that al? most undoubtedly do occur in wolves and had simply escaped observation under field and zoo conditions. Conversely, the very few behavior patterns reported in wolves but not in dogs were those observed in spe? cial hunting situations and hence not like? ly to occur in dogs living under our condi? tions. The only major behavior pattern of wolves that has not yet been reported in dogs is that of a dominant wolf pinning a subordinate one to the ground by the neck (Ginsburg, 1965). We felt justified, therefore, in concluding that the dog could only have been domesticated from the wolf. As further evi? dence comes in from detailed behavioral studies of other Canidae, this evidence can? not be given as much weight, although the data now available for broader compari? sons in no way conflict with our original conclusion. Tembrock (1957) did a de? tailed ethogram of the red fox and was able to identify many of the same patterns of be? havior as in the dog and wolf, with minor modifications such as the tone of the bark. Significantly, Tembrock did not find the dog-wolf postures of dominance and subordination. Foxes are even more solitary than coyotes and jackals, and they appar? ently have never evolved patterns of ago? nistic behavior which would permit them to live in larger groups than the mated pair.