Zonal Travel Cost Research Articles

Assessing and valuing the recreational ecosystem services of Germany’s national parks using travel cost models

This paper estimates the recreational ecosystem services (RES) of 15 German national parks (NLP) in one of the most comprehensive RES valuations of NLP systems performed to date. The RES were evaluated using zonal travel cost models (TCM) based on 24,548 representative interviews conducted with a uniform methodology between 2004 and 2015. Reaction functions were estimated for each park as double-log regression models. The lower-limit consumer surplus of recreation in German NLP totals EUR 385.3–621.8 million (including only visitors whose trip decisions were influenced by the parks’ protected status), while an upper-limit value reached EUR 1.690–2.751 billion (including all visitors). Thus, NLP generate enormous non-monetary values for German society. The standardized approach applied could be used to harmonize assessments and valuations of RES in protected areas. Finally, the article advances the theory of RES assessment, valuation and mapping by highlighting the importance of on-site visitation data. RES do not exist a priori, but emerge as co-products of ecosystems and visitors’ perceptions and valuations. For this reason, we discourage the use of context-specific RES results in benefit transfer approaches.

Estimating Recreational Benefits of the Kuakata Sea Beach: A Travel Cost Analysis

Estimating recreational benefits of non-market natural resources is considered crucial for their conservation. When natural resources are degraded by various anthropogenic reasons, it negatively affects the well-being they provide to human society. But in most cases, such effects remain unaccounted as market failure is synonymous with most environmental services and provisioning. Thus, valuation of natural resources and estimation of their diverse economic benefits are important as they can play a great role in the sustainable management of natural resources for human welfare. This study has employed the Zonal Travel Cost Method (ZTCM), a variation of the popularly used TCM technique, for estimating recreational benefits of the Kuakata Sea Beach, one of the highly potential yet unexplored natural tourist destinations in Bangladesh. It is estimated that the Beach produces an annual figure of TK 29.55 million as recreational benefits to the visitors. The study also finds that improvements in the overall environmental quality of the Beach, as well as better roads and transport facilities, are more likely to increase the recreational benefits to visitors and also their visitation rates.

Assessing the recreational value of world heritage site inscription: A longitudinal travel cost analysis of Mount Fuji climbers

This study evaluates the impact of listing on the recreational value of one world heritage site (WHS) using a zonal travel cost method (ZTCM) and investigates the spatial and temporal pattern of consumer surplus (CS) in each calibrated zone. Climber demand is estimated at Mount Fuji during consecutive summer seasons (2008–2013). Per capita visit rates from 21 origin zones are used to calibrate the longitudinal ZTCM with panel count data generating CS estimates in the seasons before and immediately after inscription. Findings suggest that the value did not fluctuate significantly after WHS inscription. Furthermore, we use spatial analysis tools in GIS to investigate the spatial distribution of zonal CS estimates. Two clusters revealed significant change: central Japan and the peripheral regions. This study's originality derives from its hybrid, revealed preference approach to monitoring recreational value of cultural heritage, combining panel data with field surveys collected from Fuji climbers over six seasons.

A comparison of the values of water inflows into selected South African estuaries: The Heuningnes, Kleinmond, Klein, Palmiet, Cefane, Kwelera and Haga-Haga

Abstract The functionality of estuaries is threatened by widespread and rapid transformation as a result of the significant reduction in the rate at which freshwater flows into them. We present standardized methods that combine freshwater abstraction and estuary functionality to estimate recreational values of freshwater inflow to households located in proximity to the seven selected South African estuaries while testing for the convergent validity of the contingent valuation method (CVM), zonal travel cost method (ZTCM) and the individual travel cost method (ITCM). Given that the dependent variable is the log transform, our dependent variable is not censored, so we use an OLS model for the regression, and model separately our zero values using a spike model. When running our regressions, we pool all observations from the seven estuaries and use dummy fixed effects for each estuary, and use interactions to model different effects of the covariates in each estuary. For travel costs analyses, we estimate truncated count data models of recreational demand taking into account the fact that the number of visitation trips taken is a non-negative integer. The CVM generated values per m 3 of freshwater inflow into the estuary ranges from R0.0022 to R0.0546 whereas the ZTCM values ranges from R0.0035 to R0.0499, while the ITCM generated value per m 3 of freshwater inflow is R0.003. The findings in this study are that some convergence of results is achieved.

Choice of the angler

The author proposes a novel application for estimating demand for a single recreation site when data are limited. An aggregated zonal travel cost model is outlined and estimated in a panel setting using a negative binomial estimator with time-specific constants to capture unobserved time-varying quality attributes. The data are based on catch records for the Mörrum river salmon fishery, one of the most popular sport fishing destinations in Northern Europe. These are aggregated to the municipal level for the zonal estimation and give number of visits per municipality per week for the period 1999–2011. The results confirm the expected negative influence of travel cost on visits. Further, the inclusion of time-specific constants does not render all time-varying quality attributes insignificant.

A Comparison between Zonal Travel Cost Model and Individual Travel Cost Model

A Comparison between Zonal Travel Cost Model and Individual Travel Cost Model

Recreational value estimation of suburban leisure agriculture: a case study of the Qianjiangyue agritourism farm

As a form of economic and community development, agritourism has a strong and widespread appeal to all tourists. To explore the situation and value of agritourism in China, the Qianjiangyue agritourism farm located between Fuzhou City and Yongtai County was chosen to evaluate recreational values. The data was obtained from tourists and farm samples in Qianjiangyue agritourism farm by questionnaires. Two basic models including the zonal travel cost method (ZTCM) and the individual travel cost method (ITCM) were applied for data analysis. The recreational value estimation results obtained from ITCM and ZTCM showed that the total consumer surplus (CS) of the Qianjiangyue agritourism farm in 2011 was estimated at 54,533,300 CNY (8,894,682 US$) which was equal to a CS per tourist of 3029.63 CNY (494.15 US$), and the annual recreational value of agricultural landscapes per hm2 was 361,078 CNY (58,893.82 US$). The average annual recreational value of agritourism farmland was 15.7 times of that from traditional farming, and 6 times of present land business income. This paper will be helpful for exploring and utilizing appropriate environmental resources in China.

“Should ‘Paraviwella Beach’ in Sri Lanka be Preserved for ‘Sea Bathing’?”: A ZTCM Approach

‘Sea bathing’ is the main recreational activity at the Paraviwella Beach Park in Sri Lanka. However, there is a proposal by the Government of Sri Lanka to convert the Beach Park into an area that could be used for the expansion of the fisheries harbour. Our study examines the possibility of the proposal against maintaining the Park by using the Zonal Travel Cost Method to estimate the welfare benefits (in terms of Consumer Surplus). The study shows that the welfare benefits of Paraviwella Beach Park to be LKR 6.39 million per year for local visitors. Our results suggest that for maximum revenue from the park to be derived, the fresh water bathing fee should be raised to LKR 100.45 from the present fee of LKR 20 since those who sea-bathe requires a fresh water bath thereafter. Though it would reduce the visitor numbers to the Park by 34%, it would increase the total revenue of the Park by 231.18%. These values demonstrate that the Park can be preserved for sea-bathing while making the site more financially viable.

The social and economic value of waves: An analysis of Costa de Caparica, Portugal

This paper presents the results of a study to analyze the social value of Costa de Caparica's waves for beachgoers and surfers, as well as the economic value, using the Zonal Travel Cost Method. The valuation of the wave through this methodology is a key tool to obtain the minimum economic value unallocated to the market, allowing to understand the true value of the presence of this abiotic resource of high uniqueness. The data collected carried out with 432 surveys made during August and September on the beaches of Costa de Caparica in 2011. One of the findings of the study was the recognition of the waves used directly by surfers, as a resource for the local economy by all users. Many of the users understood that their disappearance would be negative, since Costa de Caparica has an associated mass clients surfing contribution. As for the economic value it is estimated that the waves may be worth between €46 635.12 and €1 022 789.52 from an estimation of 22 000 surfers that attend annually. This paper demonstrates the importance of Costa de Caparica's waves in social and economical analyses and the need to consider them as a potential resource, for which the negative impacts could be damaging both local community and economy.

The economic value of flower tourism at the Namaqua National Park, South Africa

The travel cost method was used to estimate the economic recreational value of flower viewing at the Namaqua National Park. Demographic, time, expenditure, preference and route information was collected from interviews with 160 SA nationals who visited the park in their own car. Visitors spent an average of $US108 on transportation and $US84 on accommodation in the region. A zonal travel cost model was developed which suggests that the economic recreational value of flower viewing at the park makes to the region is far larger than the annual net loss of $US50 000 which the park makes when only the expenses and revenue of the park are considered.

Economic analysis of nature preservation investments: the zonal travel cost approach applied for Harghita County of Romania

The paper is focused on the cost of travel method and specific issues involved by the use of this method for monetization of benefits provided by nature preservation investment projects. Usually, nature preservation investment projects are non revenue generator projects and consequently the monetization of benefits provided is essential in the process of analysis and valuation of these projects, because benefits are the only positive effects able to counterbalance the investment costs. Therefore, the main interest and particularity of the cost-benefit analysis of nature preservation investment projects consists in identification and monetization of the benefits. In the following paper, the method of zonal travel cost is used for indicative valuation of the direct benefits of an investment project for nature preservation, in Harghita County of Romania, as an opportunity and pre-feasibility study completed before making the initial investment decision.

The Recreational Value of Bama in China: One of the Five World’s Longevity Townships

The recreational value of Bama Area in China is estimated to be 2.73 hundred millions dollars in 2009 via a revisionary travel cost method (TCM) in this paper. To make the estimation more applicable to the case of Bama, one of the five top longevity townships in the world, this paper adopts a new partition method and revises two calculation principles. Firstly, the conventional zonal travel cost method is amended to divide tourists by their travel cost instead of geographical or administrative zones. Secondly, the cost of tourists for different duration in Bama is calculated respectively. For short-term tourists, travel cost is estimated with the opportunity cost coefficient 1/3. The opportunity cost of the long-term tourists is replaced by their daily board and lodging cost in Bama. Thirdly, the total recreational value only covers special visits to Bama but excludes multi-destination visits. With the three modifications, it is plausible that the recreational value of Bama estimated in this paper reflects more objectively the resource characteristics and real value of the site.

Accounting for unobserved time‐varying quality in recreation demand: An application to a Sonoran Desert wilderness

Environmental variables can be important factors in recreation demand. Analysts wishing to quantify environmental quality impacts face the difficult issue of isolating them from unobserved variables. Quality changes may occur in space, varying between sites, or in time, varying between occasions. In this zonal travel cost analysis, fixed effects are used to control for time‐varying factors at a single site, adapting a technique previously applied to control for unobserved factors across sites. Graphical analysis and a second stage regression on time‐specific constants are used as diagnostic tools to guide a demand specification directly including both environmental and access predictors. The approach is developed and applied using a multiyear panel data set for a wilderness destination in the Sonoran Desert featuring a perennial stream. Empirical estimates are also provided for the recreational value of a trip day to a Sonoran Desert site with instream flows.

Estimating Total Economic Value of Coral Reefs of Kish Island (Persian Gulf)

This paper is concerned with the economic valuation of the coral reef within Kish Island in Persian Gulf of Iran. For calculating this value, all components of use and non-use values are estimated and then according to each of them, suitable method has applied. Many different evaluation tools such as contingent valuation method, zonal travel cost method, replacement cost, avoided cost method, value at risk method are used. The semi non parametric distribution free estimator for calculating the contingent valuation method is applied. The probability of willingness to pay the same as the probability of accepting bids is estimated by using data based on questioners approach using stated preference method. The result indicates that the total economic value of this unique ecosystem in Kish Island is at least 14.6 million dollar per year, showing the importance of conservation value of the ecosystem. Its largest component of total economic value is about 62 percent attributed to the recreational value. This is followed by conservation value which is about 23 percent of the economic value. Since coastal protection and waste assimilation functions of coral reef are 10 percent, it is also suitable factor in illustrating total economic value. The economic value for each hectare of this ecosystem in Kish Island is US$ 237,000 in 2009.

El valor del uso recreativo del Parque Natural Sierra de María-Los Velez (Almería)

The aim of this paper is to estimate the recreational use value of a protected area in the south of Spain, Sierra de Maria-Los Vélez Natural Park in Almeria, using the zonal travel cost method. The estimated consumer surplus ranges from € 7.67 to € 13.29 per person, according to the proposed scenario taking into account travel time as a cost or as an enjoyment. Finally, some conclusions are presented, as well as some strategies to promote the recreational use of the Park and to improve its future management.

Valuing Ecological Restoration and Recreational Benefits in a Mountain Protected Area: The Case of Los Nevados National Park, Colombia

This study uses travel cost and contingent valuation methods to derive estimates of economic value for recreational use of Los Nevados National Park in the Andean region of Colombia. Park visitors were surveyed regarding their travel costs and willingness-to-pay (WTP) for ecological restoration of areas affected by wildfires in 2006. The travel cost data was analyzed using a zonal travel cost model. The contingent valuation experiment used a dichotomous choice format followed by an open-ended question asking for their maximum WTP for restoration. Consumer surplus for recreational use of the park was found to be large relative to the budget of the Colombian Parks Service, which justifies continued funding. Respondents’ WTP for ecological restoration was modest and possibly influenced by bequest values, but unaffected by potential information bias.

Estimating the recreational value of freshwater inflows into the Klein and Kwelera estuaries: An application of the zonal travel cost method

This study estimates the change in aggregate consumer surplus associated with increased freshwater supply into two South African estuaries, namely, the Klein and the Kwelera. The estimation entailed the application of a contingent behaviour, single-site Clawson-Knetsch travel cost model. The value estimates derived reflect the benefit of improved freshwater supplies into the estuaries in question over the status quo. In a survey, a questionnaire was administered face-to-face to 240 households at the Klein Estuary and 231 households at the Kwelera Estuary during the period between December 2005 and April 2006. It was deduced that in 2006 the marginal recreational value of freshwater inflow into the Klein Estuary was 5.7 cents/m3 (ZAR0.057/m3) and into the Kwelera Estuary 1.1 cents/m3 (ZAR0.011/m3).Keywords: estuary, water abstraction, revealed preference, single-site, travel cost method, freshwater inflows

Effects of spatial and temporal scales on cultural services valuation

The monetary valuation of ecosystem services has proved to be a powerful tool for influencing management decisions, as it can be used to quantify the relative importance of various ecosystem functions. However, these valuation methods are rarely implemented with adequate care; in particular, they do not consider spatial and temporal variations in the services offered and demanded. This paper examines the effect of heterogeneity on the valuation of cultural services offered by the Doñana natural protected area in Spain. We apply the zonal travel cost method at various spatial scales, and the individual travel cost method at various temporal scales. We conclude that economic valuation techniques must account for spatial and temporal heterogeneity if they are to provide accurate and realistic information.

A Hybrid Individual—Zonal Travel Cost Model for Estimating the Consumer Surplus of Golfing in Colorado

Although golf is a popular activity and significant industry, there is little known about the price elasticity of demand for golf, nor the benefits received by the golfers themselves. Using a survey of Colorado golfers at 19 golf courses and a relatively novel hybrid individual observation and zonal travel cost model, the authors find the demand for golf is quite price inelastic with respect to transportation costs (−.433) and green fees (−.115). The typical golfer spends $8 on transportation and $49 on green fees/ carts. The price inelastic demands translate into a consumer surplus of $18.44 per round of golf at Colorado golf courses. The annual net economic value to golfers in Colorado for the 7.8 million rounds of golf is $143.8 million. The authors find a ``U'' shaped quadratic relationship between age and golf demand, such that retirement age golfers take about 30% more trips than middle age golfers.

The recreational value of Lake McKenzie, Fraser Island: An application of the travel cost method

Lake McKenzie is one of the most highly used and popular visitor destinations of all Fraser Island's natural sites, attracting 2000 visitors a day in peak periods. Many consider this level of visitation to be unsustainable and the management authority is currently considering a range of management options to address this issue. In assessing the alternatives, it is useful to have some idea of the recreational use value of the Lake under the current regime, as it is this value that is at risk if visitor numbers are to be reduced. This paper, using the zonal travel cost method, estimates the recreational use value of Fraser Island and Lake McKenzie for Australian-resident, independent visitors.