Ziziphus Mucronata Research Articles

Diversity, stand and population structure of riparian woody species in two contrasting land use types in the distal Okavango Delta, Northwestern Botswana

AbstractLand use change threatens the integrity of riparian woodland vegetation. The aim of this study was to investigate the diversity and population structure of riparian plant species in protected and communal areas. A total of 71 transects were sampled from each of the protected and communal areas. Total species richness recorded was 36 and 38 in communal and protected areas, respectively. Species diversity was significantly (p < 0.05) higher in the protected than communal areas. Vachellia tortilis (communal areas) and Croton megalobotrys (both areas) showed a reverse J shaped pattern with more individuals in the lower diameter size classes than in the large ones. Dichrostachys cinerea (both areas), Ziziphus mucronata (communal areas), Combretum imberbe (protected areas), C. hereroense (protected areas), Berchemia discolor (protected areas) and Vachellia erioloba (communal areas) showed a reverse-J distribution pattern, but with missing size classes. Philenoptera violacea (protected areas) was characterized by a bell-shaped distribution with more individuals in the middle size classes than in the lower and upper ones while Combretum hereroense, C. imberbe and B. discolor were characterized by irregular population structure in communal areas. Croton megalobotrys, D. cinerea, C. imberbe, C. hereroense, Z. mucronata, B. discolor and S. erubescens had higher Important Value Indices (IVIs) in protected than communal areas. Comparatively, Vachellia tortilis, P. violacea and V. erioloba had higher IVIs in communal than protected areas. We recommended that species with J-shaped population structure and those with only one size class be protected to enable them to attain healthy population structures.

Ethnobotanical survey and anti-candidal activity of plant species used for oral candidiasis

Background: Oral candidiasis is caused by Candida albicans, which is most prevalent in immunocompromised patients.Aim: The study aimed to investigate the antifungal activity of plant species used for oral candidiasis against C. albicans.Setting: The study was conducted in Aganang Local Municipality, Capricorn District, Limpopo province, South Africa.Methods: A survey was conducted using a semi-structured questionnaire supplemented with guided field walks with traditional health practitioners to gather information on medicinal plants used to treat oral candidiasis. Nine plant species (Artemisia afra Jacq. ex Willd., Blepharis subvolubilis subsp. subvolubilis C.B. Clarke, Enicostemma axillare [Lam.], Helichrysum caespititium [DC.] Harv., Solanum incanum L., Waltheria indica L., Ximenia caffra Sond. var. caffra, Ximenia caffra Sond. var. natalensis and Ziziphus mucronata Willd.) were investigated for antifungal activity. The plant material were extracted with solvents of varying polarities: acetone, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, ethanol, hexane, methanol, and water. The Micro-dilution and bioautography assays were used to determine the antifungal activity of the plant extracts.Results: Leaf extracts of A. afra and S. incanum were more active against C. albicans with MIC values of 0.02 mg/mL. Bioautography assay demonstrated active compounds in S. incanum, W. indica and X. caffra var. caffra extracts developed in Benzene: Ethanol: Ammonia hydroxide (BEA).Conclusion: An ethnobotanical survey is a worthy starting point in selecting potential plant species for ethnopharmacological studies.Contribution: The effectiveness of oral administrations of the medicinal plants was confirmed by the excellent antifungal activity of the aqueous extracts.

Phytochemical evaluation of Ziziphus mucronata and Xysmalobium undulutum towards the discovery and development of anti-malarial drugs

BackgroundThe development of resistance by Plasmodium falciparum is a burdening hazard that continues to undermine the strides made to alleviate malaria. As such, there is an increasing need to find new alternative strategies. This study evaluated and validated 2 medicinal plants used in traditional medicine to treat malaria.MethodsInspired by their ethnobotanical reputation of being effective against malaria, Ziziphus mucronata and Xysmalobium undulutum were collected and sequentially extracted using hexane (HEX), ethyl acetate (ETA), Dichloromethane (DCM) and methanol (MTL). The resulting crude extracts were screened for their anti-malarial and cytotoxic potential using the parasite lactate dehydrogenase (pLDH) and 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay, respectively. This was followed by isolating the active compounds from the DCM extract of Z. mucronata using silica gel chromatography and structural elucidation using spectroscopic techniques (NMR: 1H, 12C, and DEPT). The active compounds were then targeted against P. falciparum heat shock protein 70–1 (PfHsp70-1) using Autodock Vina, followed by in vitro validation assays using ultraviolet–visible (UV–VIS) spectroscopy and the malate dehydrogenase (MDH) chaperone activity assay.ResultsThe extracts except those of methanol displayed anti-malarial potential with varying IC50 values, Z. mucronata HEX (11.69 ± 3.84 µg/mL), ETA (7.25 ± 1.41 µg/mL), DCM (5.49 ± 0.03 µg/mL), and X. undulutum HEX (4.9 ± 0.037 µg/mL), ETA (17.46 ± 0.024 µg/mL) and DCM (19.27 ± 0.492 µg/mL). The extracts exhibited minimal cytotoxicity except for the ETA and DCM of Z. mucronata with CC50 values of 10.96 and 10.01 µg/mL, respectively. Isolation and structural characterization of the active compounds from the DCM extracts revealed that betulinic acid (19.95 ± 1.53 µg/mL) and lupeol (7.56 ± 2.03 µg/mL) were responsible for the anti-malarial activity and had no considerable cytotoxicity (CC50 > µg/mL). Molecular docking suggested strong binding between PfHsp70-1, betulinic acid (− 6.8 kcal/mol), and lupeol (− 6.9 kcal/mol). Meanwhile, the in vitro validation assays revealed the disruption of the protein structural elements and chaperone function.ConclusionThis study proves that X undulutum and Z. mucronata have anti-malarial potential and that betulinic acid and lupeol are responsible for the activity seen on Z. mucronata. They also make a case for guided purification of new phytochemicals in the other extracts and support the notion of considering medicinal plants to discover new anti-malarials.

Diet preference of black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis at Welgevonden Game Reserve, South Africa, across seasons

Diet preference of the black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis was determined in Welgevonden Game Reserve (WGR), located in the Waterberg region of Limpopo Province, South Africa. Fieldwork was conducted in the dry, early wet and late wet seasons. Diet preference was determined using microhistological faecal analysis and browse availability surveys. A chi-square goodness-of-fit test assessed similarity between the observed diet composition based on dung samples and the expected diet composition. To account for potential non-independence between browse availability and diet composition, a weighted approach was employed where browse availability was just one of several contributing factors to the expected composition. Plant species selectivity was quantified by Ivlev’s electivity index. Results obtained from this indicated that these black rhinos preferentially browsed certain plant species across different seasons. Plant species observations in the dung samples from the dry season totalled 3 984, with the evergreen Natal gum Euclea natalensis dominating the diet; for the early wet season, plant observations in the dung totalled 1 479, with buffalo thorn Ziziphus mucronata dominating in the diet; for the late wet season, plant observations in the dung totalled 4 424, with the small deciduous tree Ochna pulchra dominating in the diet. By obtaining information on food selection and the availability of browse species across seasons, this study provides a clearer understanding of black rhinos’ forage preference in WGR.

Resprouting Response among Savanna Tree Species in Relation to Stem Size, Woody Removal Intensity and Herbicide Application.

Mechanical and chemical methods are widely used to control woody plant encroachment in many African countries. However, very little is known about the effectiveness of these control methods among woody species of different ages. We conducted a field experiment to determine the effects of different tree removal treatments (10%, 20%, 50%, 75% and 100%) and herbicide application (Picloram; 6 mL L-1) on the resprouting ability and vigour of 12 woody plant species. We examined 20 plots (30 m × 30 m) that were each subjected to tree removal, followed by herbicide application on half of the stems for each plot. All the tree species in this study resprouted after cutting. The applied concentration of herbicide significantly reduced the shoot production for Ehretia rigida, Vachellia robusta and Ziziphus mucronata, with a marginal effect for Dichrostachys cinerea. The diameter of stems was an important factor in determining resprouting ability, with shoot production decreasing with increasing stem diameter. However, stem diameter did not affect shoot length and diameter for all species. We found that woody plants are more likely to resprout and survive as juveniles than as adults after cutting and that herbicide only affected four of the twelve species at a concentration of 6 mL L-1. Thus, testing the amount of Picloram needed to kill certain woody species may be of importance for land users in southern African savannas.

Vegetation description around the savanna flux measurement site at Benfontein Nature Reserve, South Africa

A flux tower with eddy covariance instruments was recently erected at Benfontein Nature Reserve (BNR) outside of Kimberley. An understanding of the landscape within the flux tower footprint, in this case natural vegetation, is necessary to interpret the data collected by the eddy covariance instruments. The tower was erected as part of the Expanded Freshwater and Terrestrial Environmental Observation Network (EFTEON) infrastructure initiative to establish long-term monitoring platforms focused on socially relevant terrestrial landscapes and their coupled hydrological systems. We sought to describe the vegetation within the flux tower footprint to set a baseline of the vegetation in the landscape at the inception of the long-term monitoring of flux measurements at BNR. Woody vegetation was surveyed in five square 1 ha plots while the herbaceous layer was sampled across 105 circular plots following the Socio-Ecological Observatory for Southern African Woodland (SEOSAW) protocol. Woody vegetation was quantified in terms of abundance, diversity and biomass, together with Size Class Distribution (SCD) methods to describe the woody vegetation structure. The herbaceous layer was described by species count, basal cover, biomass, and diversity which was assessed using the Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index. Five tree species, dominated by Vachellia erioloba, were found in the plots. Recruits (0 and 1 m tall) were significantly more abundant than large trees (1.2–9.5 m high). The SCD for the woody vegetation yielded a Type IIIa curve i.e. populations missing one or more size classes, for all tree species except Ziziphus mucronata which yielded a Type IIIb curve representing a population missing small sized trees. The herbaceous layer was diverse, consisting of 10 grass and 32 forb species. Schmidtia pappophoroides was the dominant grass species in terms of count, basal cover and aboveground biomass. Herbaceous biomass was two times higher than that of woody vegetation, with the North plot contributing the highest biomass for herbaceous and woody vegetation. The results indicate that the vegetation around the flux tower represents a wooded grassland, which is a type of a savanna. These vegetation data will contribute to the interpretation of data collected by the flux tower instruments now and in the future. Furthermore, long-term data collection in this reserve is needed to capture the woody vegetation dynamics and its interaction with the herbaceous layer.

Prevalence, molecular and phenotypic profiles of arboreal associated Cryptococcus neoformans in Botswana

Mopane tree (Colophospermum mopane) is one of the main ecological niches of Cryptococcus neoformans, an opportunistic fungal pathogen that causes cryptococcosis primarily on immunocompromised hosts after inhalation of basidiospores from the environment. Hence, we investigated the prevalence, and phenotypically (antifungal resistance and biofilm formation capacity) and genotypically (mating type and genetic structure) characterized C. neoformans isolated from C. mopane, Acacia tortilis, Adansonia digitata and Ziziphus mucronata in Botswana. We report 7.1% and 2.9% prevalence of C. neoformans in C. mopane and other trees, respectively. All tested C. neoformans isolates were determined to be non-WT to fluconazole. Most isolates (65%) of C. neoformans isolates were biofilm producers. Mating type determination revealed a higher proportion of the globally rare MATa allele (53%) and a single MATα/MATa hybrid. The observed genotypeswere VNI (71%), VNB (23%) and VNB/VNB hybrids (6%). Native trees other than C. mopane are alternative ecological niches of antifungal resistant C. neoformans, and this represents a serious public health concern,and this represents a serious public health concern, especially for high-risk populations. Prevalence of C. neoformans on native trees and the observed emergence of hybrids (evidence of sexual recombination) highlight the need for increased surveillance and risk assessment within a One Health paradigm.

Nutritional assessment of Ziziphus mucronata leaves as protein supplements in grass (Eragrostis spp. ) hay basal diets

The study investigated the effect of supplementing a grass (Eragrostis spp.) hay basal diet with Ziziphus mucronata leaf meal (ZLM) on chemical composition and in vitro ruminal fermentation with or without the aid of polyethylene glycol (PEG). The grass hay was supplemented with ZLM at a rate of 0 (ZM0), 5 (ZM5), 10 (ZM10), 15 (ZM15), 20 (ZM20) and 25% w/w (ZM25). Positive linear trends (P<0.05) were observed for dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), soluble phenolics (SCT) and total soluble phenolics (TSPh), except for organic matter (OM) that linearly declined as ZLM levels increased. Neutral detergent fibre quadratically (P<0.05) responded to ZLM levels, but no significant trends were observed for acid detergent fibre and lignin. Treatment ZM25 had higher (P<0.05) CP, SCT and TSPh contents than the control treatment. The inclusion of PEG increased (P>0.05) cumulative gas production at 12, 24, 36 and 48 h post-inoculation. Supplementing the grass hay with ZLM had significant (P<0.05) influence on fermentation kinetics. The inoculation with PEG resulted in a negative quadratic trend for the partitioning factor at 96 h post-incubation [y = 326.0(±39.49) ̵ 20.01(±6.962)x + 0.785(±0.262)x2], from which an optimum ZLM supplementation rate was calculated to be 13%. It was concluded that ZLM can be used as a protein source, and with the aid of PEG, it can maximize ruminal fermentation efficiency of grass hay when included at 130 g/kg.

In Vitro Antibacterial Activity of Selected South African Plants against Drug-Resistant Staphylococci Isolated from Clinical Cases of Bovine Mastitis

Bovine mastitis in dairy livestock production is a serious economic problem causing milk production losses and increased management costs. Staphylococcus aureus and non-aureus staphylococcus (NAS) are important causes of bovine mastitis. Antimicrobial resistance can limit the control of mastitis pathogens. Antibacterial and cytotoxic activities of acetone and ethanol extracts of nine South African plants were determined against reference and drug-resistant staphylococci isolated from clinical cases of bovine mastitis. The nine plants, namely, Antidesma venosum, Elaeodendron croceum, Erythrina caffra, Indigofera frutescens, Pleurostylia capensis, Searsia lancea, Searsia leptodictya, Trichilia emetica, and Ziziphus mucronata, were chosen for research material. The antibacterial activity of extracts was determined using a serial microdilution method, while a tetrazolium-based assay was used to determine their cytotoxicity against Vero cells. The values of antibacterial minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) obtained were promising, with MIC ranging between 0.01 and 1.41 mg/mL. Generally, acetone extracts of most plants had better activity than their ethanol counterparts. The S. aureus strains were more susceptible to all the extracts than the NAS strains. The plant extracts’ half-maximal toxicity (LC50) was higher than 0.02 mg/mL, which is the recommended cytotoxic cut-off concentration. The ethanol extract of E. caffra, which showed better MIC values than its acetone extract, had the highest mean selectivity index (SI) of 8.30. Among the plants tested, S. lancea exhibited the most potent antibacterial activity, suggesting its potential usefulness as a broad-spectrum antibacterial agent against staphylococci associated with bovine mastitis, at relatively non-cytotoxic concentrations. Therefore, it is recommended for further investigation.

Effect of harvesting site on mineral concentration of browse species found in semi-arid areas of South Africa

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of the harvesting site on the mineral concentration of selected browse species found in semi-arid areas of South Africa (North West and Limpopo province sites). Five trees from each of the 52 woody browse species were randomly identified and harvested in the North West and Limpopo provinces, South Africa, dried and ground for laboratory analysis. One-way ANOVA was used to analyse the mineral composition of browse species that were not common in both harvesting sites, while a two-way factorial design within a completely randomized experimental design was used to analyse the mineral composition of browse species that were common in both harvesting sites. MANOVA tests were also used in order to assess the species and harvesting site effects on mineral concentrations of species common in both sites. Through ANOVA and MANOVA, there were significant species, harvesting site, and species × harvesting stage effects on all the measured parameters (both macro and micro mineral elements). Phosphorus and calcium concentrations were the highest in Adansonia digitata species, whereas the lowest was obtained in Androstachys jonhsonii browse species in the Limpopo harvesting site. Within each province, Schinus molle found in the North West site had the highest phosphorus, potassium and sodium values when compared to all species within the same province. Vachellia nilotica subsp. kraussiana , M. azedarach and Ziziphus mucronata found in Limpopo province had the highest level of magnesium when compared to other species found within the same province. Senegalia caffra , Grewia flava , Vachellia karroo , Vachellia nilotica subsp. kraussiana , Searsia leptodictya and Melia azedarach found in the Limpopo province had the highest phosphorus level when compared to the same species found in the North West province. Senegalia caffra , Peltophorum africanum , Grewia flava , Vachellia hebeclada and Terminalia sericea found in the North West province had the highest iron levels when compared to the same species found in Limpopo province. There is a need to provide supplementation to those animals exposed to species that have a lower concentration of certain elements.

Soil seed banks along a woody plant removal gradient in a semi-arid savanna of South Africa: Implications for restoration

Woody plant encroachment threatens ecosystem services and functions, thereby reducing herbaceous plant population persistence and community stability. Consequently, woody plant control projects are implemented in South Africa to restore herbaceous vegetation. Because persistent seeds drive passive restoration and vegetation trajectories, management following woody plant control entails examining soil seed bank (SSB) size and composition. However, a knowledge gap exists regarding how SSB characteristics respond along a woody plant removal gradient. This study was conducted at Roodeplaat in Gauteng Province of South Africa to assess the impact of woody density reduction [hereafter woody plant removal intensity (WPRI)] on SSB density, composition, diversity and richness. Woody plant vegetation composed of a mixture of species, mainly Vachellia robusta, Ziziphus mucronata, Euclea species and Pappea capensis. Selective tree removal was applied to downscale woody density (4065 ± 109 plants ha−1) of the control (0% WPRI) to 10, 20, 50, 75 and 100% WPRIs in four blocks, resulting in four replicates per WPRI. A total of 120 soil samples (n = 20 per WPRI) were collected at 5 cm depth after 3 years of tree removal. Germination method was used to assess the SSB. Fifty-one species, mainly forbs (n = 26) and grasses (n = 16) were recorded from 32 237 seeds. The SSB densities of grasses increased from 649 to 6000 seeds m−2 from 0 to 100% WPRI whilst sedges and forbs exhibited differential declining trends along WPRI gradient. Cyperus rotundus accounted for more than one-third of the SSB densities at 0 and 10% WPRIs, whereas Panicum maximum contributed nearly half (46%) to the SSB density at 100% WPRI. Woody plant removal increased SSB diversity (H′) and richness, but diversity peaked at 20% WPRI (H' = 1.78); thereafter it declined. Overall, our results signified that complete woody plant clearing has a potential for restoration of woody-encroached rangelands through increasing SSB size and species richness.

Plant Diversity and Honeybees’ Foraging Preferences: An Implication for Honeybees’ Conservation

Identification of honeybees’ preferred plant species is paramount for sustainable conservation, especially when honeybees are reported to be declining globally. The study assessed plant diversity in potential beekeeping areas in Northern Tanzania and determined the foraging preferences of honeybees across two rainy seasons of 2021/2022. We established quadrats of 5 x 5m (shrubs and forbs) nested with 1x1 m (grasses) at each of the four transects of 5 km distance to assess plant diversity and identify the most preferred plants in two study areas. The dominant plant families were Poaceae, Malvaceae, Commelinaceae, Acanthaceae, Amaranthaceae, Polygonaceae, Asteraceae, and Lamiaceae. There was a significant difference in plant diversity between short and long rain seasons in both study areas (t = 2.60, p = 0.01, and t = 2.27, p= 0.03). Grewia bicolor, Terminalia brownii, Ziziphus mucronata, Combretum schumannii, and Cordia monoica were the most visited plants by 2761, 2528, 1966, 1163, and 662 visits, respectively, during the short rain season, while Acacia mellifera, Hoslundia opposita, Ocimum bacilicum and Acalypha fruticosa were the most visited plant species by 1638, 788, 340, and 38 visits, respectively, during the long raing season. This study has highlighted important information on honeybees’ foraging preferences and their diversity that shades a way for sustainable honeybees’ conservation in the area and elsewhere. We recommend further identification and re-planting of honeybees’ forages; awareness campaign to enlighten local people in beekeeping potential areas on the impact of activities that reduce plant diversity, negatively affecting honeybees.

Phenolic composition of ten plants species used as ethnoveterinary medicines in Omusati and Kunene regions of Namibia.

The therapeutic benefits of phenolic compounds found in plants are well known. The purpose of this study was to determine the phenolic content of ten plant species used as ethnoveterinary treatments in Namibia's Omusati and Kunene regions. The plants of concern were Aloe esculenta, Fockea angustifolia, Boscia albitrunca, Combretum imberbe, Acacia nilotica, Colophospermum mopane, Acacia erioloba, Ziziphus mucronata, Ximenia americana, and Salvadora persica. An LC-MS approach was used to identify the compounds. To analyse high-resolution UPLC-UV/MS, a Waters Acquity ultra-performance liquid chromatograph (UPLC) with a photodiode array detector was connected to a Waters Synapt G2 quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometer (MS). The current study identified a total of 29 phenolic compounds. Flavonoids (epicatechin, (-)-Epigallocatechin, and rutin,) were the most abundant, followed by 2R, 3S-Piscidic acid. Methylisocitric acid was found in all species investigated, with the highest quantities in A. esculenta and X. americana leaf extracts. There were differences in composition and quantity of phenolic compounds in aerial and ground sections between species. The overall findings of the present study would act as a standard for subsequent investigations into the pharmacological potentials of plants species utilized as ethnoveterinary remedies. Priority should be given to isolating, purifying, and defining the active compounds responsible for these plants' activity.

Seed dispersal phenology of encroaching woody species in the Free State National Botanical Garden, South Africa

AbstractWe investigated seed dispersal phenology of bird‐dispersed and encroaching woody species in the Free State National Botanical Garden (FSNBG), South Africa, over a 12‐month period. Results from defecated seeds' collection in 17 roosting sites show that a total of 22,161 seeds belonging to 14 woody species under 11 families were eaten and dispersed by foraging birds with seeds of six species being frequently dispersed. The native species had a larger number of dispersed bird‐ingested seeds than the alien and invasive species. Seeds' collection suggested that out of five fruiting species, birds mostly preferred the red (Ziziphus mucronata, Ehretia rigida and Viscum rotundifolium) and black fruits (Olea europaea subsp. africana and Diospyros lyciodes). Ziziphus mucronata and O. subsp. africana seeds were dispersed in significantly higher numbers between March and July (mean ± SE: 47.1 ± 11.6; 51.4 ± 9.0), while Searsia lancea and E. rigida were mostly dispersed between August and December (221.6 ± 74.1; 373.6 ± 91.5)—a dichotomy that could minimise competition for dispersal agents while sustaining the resident bird species. Over 480 h of camera trapping, 22 bird species were captured, of which seven displayed high foraging frequency, and were resident in behaviour, while six species were migratory and colonial avian frugivores, including two alien bird species. We conclude that the reported bush encroachment is a likely result of high propagule pressure by resident frugivorous birds and colonial wintering birds in FSNBG, together with low fruit diversity in the grassland habitat.

Effect of Soil Type: Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Phytochemicals in Some Browse Species Leaves Found in Savannah Biome of South Africa.

In semi-arid regions, browse plant species are used as feed and for medicinal purposes for both animals and humans. The limitation of the utilization of these species to medicinal purposes or as feed for livestock is a lack of knowledge on the concentration level of phytochemicals and other bioactive compounds found in these plants. The study sought to assay the qualitative and quantitative bioactive constituents of some browse species found in the savannah biome of South Africa, viz. Adansonia digitate, Androstachys johnsonii, Balanites maughamii, Berchemia discolor, Berchemia zeyheri, Bridelia mollis hutch, Carissa edulis, Catha edulis, Colophospermum mopane, Combretum Imberbe, Combretum molle, Combretum collinum, Dalbergia melanoxylon, Dichrostachys cinerea, Diospros lycioides, Diospyros mespiliformis, Euclea divinorum, Flueggea virosa, Grewia flava, Grewia flavescens, Grewia monticola, Grewia occidentalis, Melia azedarach, Peltophorum africanum, Prosopis velutina, Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia, Pterocarpus rotundifolius, Schinus molle, Schotia brachypetala, Sclerocarya birrea, Searsia lancea, Searsia leptodictya, Searsia pyroides, Senegalia caffra, Senegalia galpinii, Senegalia mellifera, Senegalia nigrescens, Senegalia polyacantha, Strychnos madagascariensis, Terminalia sericea, Trichilia emetic, Vachellia erioloba, Vachellia hebeclada, Vachellia karroo, Vachellia nilotica, Vachellia nilotica subsp. Kraussiana, Vachellia rechmanniana, Vachellia robusta, Vachellia tortilis, Vachellia tortilis subsp. raddiana, Vangueria infausta, and Ziziphus mucronata. These browse species’ leaf samples were harvested from two provinces (Limpopo and North-West) of South Africa. The Limpopo province soil type was Glenrosa, Mispah, and Lithosols (GM-L), and the soil types in the North-West Province were Aeolian Kalahari Sand, Clovelly, and Hutton (AKS-CH). The harvested browse samples were air dried at room temperature for about seven days and ground for analysis. The methanol and distilled water extracts of the browse species leaves showed the presence of common phytoconstituents, including saponins, flavonoids, tannins, phenols, cardio glycosides, terpenoids, and phlobatannins, as major active compounds in browse species leaves. In the quantitative analysis, phytochemical compounds, such as soluble phenols, insoluble tannins, and condensed tannins, were quantified for common species found in both sites. Two-way ANOVA and multivariate analysis were used to test soil type and species effect on soluble phenols, insoluble tannins, and condensed tannins of woody species. Dichrostachys cinerea (0.1011% DM) in GM-L soil type and Z. mucronata (0.1009% DM) in AKS-CH soil type showed the highest (p < 0.05) concentration of soluble phenols. In AKS-CH soil type, D. cinerea (0.0453% DM) had the highest insoluble tannins concentration, while V. hebeclada had the lowest (0.0064% DM) insoluble tannins content. Vacchelia hebeclada had lower (p < 0.05) condensed tannins concentration levels than all other browse plants in both soil types. Under multivariate analysis tests, there was a significant effect (p < 0.001) of soil type, species, and soil type x species interaction on soluble phenols, insoluble tannins, and condensed tannins of woody species. In this study, most of the woody species found in GM-L soil type showed a lower amount of tannins than those harvested in AKS-CH soil type. There is a need to identify the amount of unquantified phytochemicals contained in these browse species and valorize the high-bioactive-compound browse species to enhance and maximize browsing of these browse species for animal production.

Formulation, Quality and Antimicrobial Activity of Ointments and Soaps Based on the Bark Extracts of Ziziphus mauritiana and Ziziphus mucronata

This study aimed to evaluate the quality and antimicrobial activity of soaps and ointments enriched with aqueous ethanol extracts from barks of Ziziphus mauritiana and Ziziphus mucronata. The galenic formulation allowed the development of ointments as well as soap based on aqueous ethanol extract (70%, v/v) using some excipients. The consistency of the ointments was slightly hard but softens immediately on contact with the skin. The preparation method allowed to get a very good homogeneity with a regular distribution of the extracts. The ointments were stable and no changes on the surface was observed. The ointments were found slight acidic, with pH values varying from 5 to 5.59. It was noticed that enriched soaps displayed neutral pH values neutral varying from 7.28 to 7.49. Moreover, the soap enriched with Z. mauritiana (84%) was more foaming in saline environment than that enriched with Z. mucronata (61.53%). Both bark extract-enriched ointments and soaps displayed excellent antimicrobial activity against fungi and bacteria found on the skin and hands.

Community knowledge, perceptions and use of seed-oil plants: The case of Letlhakeng, Kubung and Mahetwe villages in Kweneng District. Botswana

The world over, there has been increasing concern over the use of fossil fuels due to their finite availability, increasing prices and negative environmental impacts. The aim of the study was to determine the potential socio economic impacts of locally available or indigenous oil seed plants as biodiesel feedstocks. A household survey and a focussed group discussion were conducted in village of Letlhakeng and two settlements (Mahetlwe and Kubung), respectively, in Kweneng district in Botswana, to study residents’ knowledge, perceptions, use of and willingness to grow local seed-oil plants which could support biodiesel production: A number of indigenous oil seed plants, including Ochna pulchra, Pappea capensis, Ximenia caffra, Ziziphus mucronata, Mimusops zeyheri and Bauhinia petersiana were identified as potential biodiesel feedstocks. The reported seed-oil plants were generally perceived to be abundant where they grow. Generally, respondents expressed a willingness to commercially gather the seed-oil plants as well as grow the plants in own farms or in marginal land under community based natural resources management (CBNRM) arrangement to supply biodiesel production. The willingness stemmed from the perceived socio-economic and environmental benefits that include employment creation, diversification of income sources, enhanced resource value and conservation and sustainable use of resources.

In-Vitro Antidiabetic Effect of Ziziphus mucronata Leave Extracts

Background: Diabetes is a metabolic disorder characterized by hyperglycemia due to the body’s inability to produce insulin or inaction of the produced insulin or a combination of both. One antidiabetic therapeutic approach is to reduce gastrointestinal glucose production and absorption through the inhibition of carbohydrate digesting enzymes such as alpha-amylase as well as through the inhibition of hemoglobin glycosylation.&#x0D; Objective: This study sets out to evaluate the in vitro antidiabetic activity of Ziziphus mucronata extracts for their effect on alpha-amylase and glycosylation of hemoglobin.&#x0D; Methods: Successive gradient maceration of Z. mucronata leaves were carried out using Hexane, Acetone, Methanol and separately with water to obtain four (4) extracts labelled HE, AE, ME, and WE respectively. These were subjected to in vitro studies for their inhibitory effect on alpha-amylase and hemoglobin glycosylation, Standard laboratory methods were used to screen for phytochemicals of the most potent extract.&#x0D; Results: The result showed that AE, ME and WE extract exhibited a dose-dependent increase in percentage inhibition of both alpha-amylase and hemoglobin glycosylation. However, on a stricking note, the AE showed a more potent data result with percentage (%) potency of 71.02 at 1mg/ml, the lowest glucose concentration (of 25mg/ml) at 0.242nm as well as the highest hemoglobin glycosylation inhibitory mean concentration of 3.663nm after 72 hours. The AE of Z. mucronata (the most potent) revealed the presence of alkaloids, anthraquinone, glycosides, flavonoids, phenols, saponin, tanins and terpenoids.&#x0D; Conclusion: Thus, the Acetone extract is more likely to give a lead antidiabetic drug molecule of drug when further explored; which somewhat justify the folkloric claims of Z. mucronata leave as an antidiabetic.&#x0D; Keywords: Heamoglabin glycosylation, Alpha-amylase enzymes, Inhibition, Glucose.

Resource Partitioning in the Sunbird Species Found in Federal College of Forestry, Jos, Plateau State

Competition occurs when individuals or different species are vying for the same resource which is in limited supply. Two complete competitors cannot coexist indefinitely, therefore competitors must differ to some degree in their resource use. The research was carried to investigate how resources are partitioned among the species of sunbirds found in Federal College of Forestry, Jos. Opportunistic sightings along a 200m transect was used for observation. Sunbirds were observed using binoculars between 6:30 – 8am and by 4:30 – 6pm. Six transects were purposively selected in the study area. Sightings along a 200m transect was used to observe; species of sunbird, sex of individual sunbird species, species of flowering plant visited by the sunbird species, activity or behaviour performed by the sunbird (probing, insect hunting, roosting, perching etc.) and duration of activity. Descriptive statistics, ANOVA and post hoc test was used to analyse the data obtained. Results showed that forty-three (43) plant species were utilised by the four (4) sunbird species found in the study site with Corymbia torelliana and Hamelia patens having the highest number of visit. These four sunbird species observed were; Scarlet-chested sunbird, Variable sunbird, Green-headed sunbird and the Copper sunbird. Mean number of plants visited shows that Green-headed sunbird visited more plants than the other three species (28.89) which was highly significant (p=0.001). Copper sunbird spent the highest foraging time (67.71) which showed no variation with the other species (p=0.516). Females of the sunbird species visit more plants species and spent more time foraging as compared to the males although there was no variation (p= 0.984 and p= 0.906 respectively). The activities of the males (perching, hovering, probing, feeding) was higher than that of females and had a high level of significance (p=0.001). Callistemon citrinus, Corymbia torelliana, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Hamelia patens, Parkia biglobosa and Ziziphus mucronata were utilised by all the sunbird species. Scarlet-chested sunbirds spent more time probing which aids pollination of plants in the study site and hence ecologically important to the plants found in the study site.

Seasonal dynamics on nutritive value, chemical estimates and in vitro dry matter degradability of some woody species found in rangelands of South Africa

Unlocking browse species in semi-arid regions can be a key to improving the livestock productivity. The research was conducted to assess the browse species variation in chemical composition and in vitro dry matter degradability as influenced by seasonal (summer and winter) changes. Leaves from ten randomly selected browsable trees from sixteen species (Vachellia karroo, Senegalia nigrescens, Vachellia nilotica, Balanites maughamii, Berchemia discolor, Berchemia zeyheri, Bridelia mollis, Combretum collinum, Combretum imberbe, Dalbergia melanoxylon, Dichrostachys cinerea, Grewia monticola, Grewia occidentalis, Melia azedarach, Ormocarpum kirkii and Ziziphus mucronata) were harvested before defoliation from the site in two seasons (summer and winter) and dried at room temperature and then ground for analysis. Two-way analysis was used to analyse chemical composition and in vitro ruminal dry matter degradability. Melia azedarach (343.7 g/kg DM) had the highest (p < 0.0001) CP content in summer. In winter, B. maughamii (210.3 g/kg DM) had the highest (p < 0.05) crude protein content. Combretum collinum (2.90 Mcal/kg) had a highest (p < 0.0001) metabolizable energy value in summer. Bridelia mollis, B. maughamii, B. discolor, C. collinum, C. imberbe, O. kirkii, S. nigrescens, V. nilotica, G. occidentalis and B. zeyheri had the same (p > 0.0001) dry matter degradability (DMD) 48 values across two seasons. In both seasons, most of these browse species have the potential to supplement low quality natural grasses because they go beyond the minimum requirement of protein and have coherent amounts of fibre concentration. There is a need to assess the bioactive compounds found in these browse species for the amelioration and also to maximize browsing of these species.