Zero Greenhouse Gas Emissions Research Articles

“How could it be our responsibility?” The equity of Local Authority climate action in England

ABSTRACT The majority of English Local Authorities (LAs) have set targets to achieve net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 or sooner, despite having no formal responsibilities to do so. However, it is questionable whether LAs are able to deliver these plans and targets whilst they are subject to significant operational pressures. This analysis applies the international “equity” framework of Common But Differentiated Responsibility and Respective Capabilities to the case of English LAs. The research evaluates responses from 28 semi-structured interviews with stakeholders from across levels of government, different sectors, and regions of England. We evaluate the drivers of inequalities in capabilities to implement climate action between LAs, and how these inequalities could be reduced through a number of governance interventions. Though the introduction of a statutory responsibility is frequently discussed in the literature, its perceived viability and equity have not been empirically assessed by stakeholders. We therefore evaluate stakeholder perspectives on whether this would be a fair mechanism for allocating responsibility to the local scale. We find that economic, social and political aspects of capability are interdependent, and that current governance arrangements tend to reinforce patterns of inequality in capability. We offer a series of policy recommendations to improve equity in burden-sharing between LAs, finding that funding reform and a well-designed and well-resourced statutory responsibility could be both effective and fair. Policy highlights The governance of local climate action in England reinforces existing inequalities in economic, social and political capability between Local Authorities (LAs). Though councils are currently taking action voluntarily, further support is required to ensure councils can equitably meet their net zero ambitions. A statutory responsibility would improve equity in burden-sharing for mitigation between councils, provided it was well-designed and resourced. A statutory responsibility could introduce a reporting component that would provide an evidence base to target greater support to councils that need it. Equity-based funding systems are proposed as a means of respecting the variable capabilities of different LAs.

Preparing for net zero greenhouse gas emissions in 2050: lifecycle emissions of dairy products in Brazil

Dairy products play an important role in human nutrition and the world economy. Livestock farming, including cows rearing to produce milk and dairy products, is one of the world's major sources of greenhouse gas emissions. Progress towards net zero goals requires monitoring emissions from companies and products, and greenhouse gas inventories are essential. This work quantifies greenhouse gas emissions from milk production, considering the milk delivered at the farm gate and the milk delivered at the cooperative gate. Emissions accounting was based on greenhouse gas inventories for two units and lifecycle emissions for major farm inputs. Results have shown that milk production on the farm emits 0.57 kg CO2e / liter, with enteric fermentation accounting for more than 90% of emissions at the farm gate, and more than 50% at the milk processing unit gate. Dairy production adds 0.533 kg CO2e / liter to the emissions coming from raw milk, most of which comes from wastewater treatment. Thus, the footprint of dairy products is 1.103 kg CO2e / liter of processed milk. The producers' cooperative's greenhouse gas emissions are essentially indirect and amount to 0.626 kg CO2e/liter of milk delivered to customers, in which emissions from purchased milk account for more than 85% and emissions from transportation account for around 15%.

Briefing: Stocktaking global warming: the outcomes of the 2023 Dubai Climate Summit (COP28)

This article reviews outcomes of the 28th United Nations Climate Change Conference of the Parties (COP28) held in Dubai, United Arab Emirates in late 2023. In particular, it considered the first Global Stocktake (GST) of actions taken by signatory nations to the 2015 Paris Agreement on Climate Change. The GST examined the potential impact of bottom-up national pledges on greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation required to limit global warming to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels by the end of the twenty-first century. The achievements at COP28 were mixed, and disappointed many from the climate-vulnerable states at high risk from extreme weather events and rising sea levels. There is a significant GHG emissions gap between that needed to ‘keep 1.5°C alive’ and climate actions identified in the GST. Nonetheless, the parties agreed to ‘transition away from fossil fuels in energy systems’ in order to reach net zero GHG emissions (i.e. carbon neutrality) by 2050, and to triple renewable energy capacity and double energy efficiency by 2030. This assessment sets out the background to what needs to be achieved at future annual COP summits, including the next GST at COP30 to be held in the Brazilian city of Belém later in 2025.

Impact of net zero policy scenarios on air pollution inequalities in England and Wales

BackgroundThe UK is committed to achieve net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. The suite of policies needed to reach net zero will lead to improvements in air quality and, consequently, could lessen air pollution inequalities. We assessed air pollution inequalities across different sociodemographic groups in England and Wales and explored how these might be differentially impacted by future air pollution projections in 2030 and 2040 under net zero policies. MethodsWe employed a geodemographic classification approach to categorise neighbourhoods into five distinct clusters based on 2021 UK Census sociodemographic variables. We modelled fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) concentrations for the year 2019, and predicted concentrations in 2030 and 2040. We compared a business-as-usual (BAU) scenario and two policy pathways to achieve net zero currently considered by the UK government. We aggregated air pollution concentrations to the neighbourhood level and assessed differential neighbourhood-level concentrations across the geodemographic groups using descriptive statistics and box plots. ResultsThe Urban Central Professionals group experienced 14 µg/m3 higher average NO2 concentrations compared with the Rural Elderly group in 2019. Despite substantial improvements to air quality in 2030 and 2040 of up to 6.3 µg/m3 for NO2 based on BAU, and further reductions of up to 2.4 µg/m3 NO2 under net zero policies, the overall pattern of inequality persists, but is predicted to be less pronounced. ConclusionsOur findings demonstrate the effectiveness of targeted policies and innovations in reducing both air quality and greenhouse gas emissions and in bridging the environmental inequality gap. Our findings are essential to develop targeted communication campaigns to secure acceptance and willingness across the sociodemographic spectrum to support the significant behavioural changes needed to achieve net zero, by highlighting the wider co-benefits to the environment and health of such policies.

The path to 2060: Saudi Arabia's long-term pathway for GHG emission reduction

Saudi Arabia, as part of its Saudi Green Initiative, has announced its goal to achieve net zero green-house gas emissions by 2060. This ambitious target underscores the nation's dedication to addressing climate change. However, there is a significant gap in comprehensive analysis regarding the long-term effects of Saudi Arabia's climate policies and their collective contribution towards the net-zero objective. This study endeavors to bridge this gap through a detailed examination using the GCAM-KSA, a specialized version of the Global Change Analysis Model tailored for Saudi Arabia, employing a multi-sectoral methodology that integrates economic, energy, and land use systems within a coherent framework to assess the impact of climate policies on GHG emissions. Our analysis reveals that reaching net-zero GHG emissions by 2060 is a complex challenge requiring concerted efforts across all sectors of the economy. While transitioning to low-carbon electricity and improving energy efficiency offer considerable emission reductions, fully decarbonizing the industrial and transportation sectors poses a significant hurdle. Our findings suggest that Saudi Arabia must triple its emission reduction commitments in its next Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) update to align with its 2060 net-zero goal. Early action and increased ambition could avoid the chances of getting locked into the high emission assets and give enough time to transform the energy system. Furthermore, the adoption and integration of Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) technologies are identified as crucial for offsetting residual emissions, especially in sectors that might continue to rely on fossil fuels.

Achieving net zero greenhouse gas emissions critical to limit climate tipping risks

Under current emission trajectories, temporarily overshooting the Paris global warming limit of 1.5 °C is a distinct possibility. Permanently exceeding this limit would substantially increase the probability of triggering climate tipping elements. Here, we investigate the tipping risks associated with several policy-relevant future emission scenarios, using a stylised Earth system model of four interconnected climate tipping elements. We show that following current policies this century would commit to a 45% tipping risk by 2300 (median, 10–90% range: 23–71%), even if temperatures are brought back to below 1.5 °C. We find that tipping risk by 2300 increases with every additional 0.1 °C of overshoot above 1.5 °C and strongly accelerates for peak warming above 2.0 °C. Achieving and maintaining at least net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2100 is paramount to minimise tipping risk in the long term. Our results underscore that stringent emission reductions in the current decade are critical for planetary stability.

Greenhouse gas mitigation and yield production of Thai fragrant rice cultivation under alternate wetting and drying water management

Abstract Alternate wetting and drying (AWD) water management is being promoted to replace continuous flooding (CF) water regime in rice cultivation for agricultural countries, including Thailand, to achieve the net zero greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and cope with drought. However, its adoption in different areas yielding variable results that requires the careful approaches to prevent negative impacts on rice yield, particularly the aroma of fragrant rice, along with mitigating GHG emissions, mainly methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). This study aims to assess the impacts of AWD on CH4 and N2O emissions, productivity, water use, and soil characteristics of fragrant rice cultivation in Thailand. Khao Dawk Mali (KDML) 105 cultivar was cultivated in the wet season and Pathum Thani (PTT) 1 cultivar was planted in the dry season under CF and AWD at different dry levels of 10 cm (AWD10), 15 cm (AWD15), and 20 cm (AWD20) below the soil surface. The emissions of GHG and water use were measured throughout the study period using closed-chamber technique and water meter equipment, respectively. Rice yields and soil properties were analyzed after crop harvesting. The results showed that rice cultivation under AWD in both wet and dry seasons reduced CH4 emissions (18.4%–27.6%) but stimulated N2O emissions (11.8%–15.0%). However, its global warming potential (GWP) was lower than CF, lowered by an average of 17.7%, 26.8%, and 25.5% under the AWD10, AWD15, and AWD20, respectively. Relative to CF, unsuccessful AWD in the wet season did not change rice yield quantity and aroma (2-acetyl-1-pyrroline: 2AP) of KDML 105. Conversely, successful AWD10 and AWD15 in the dry season promoted rice grain yield and 2AP (0.27–0.33 ppm) of PTT1, while AWD20 did not alter rice yield amount but increased rice aroma (0.47 ppm). AWD can save irrigation water in the range of 12.8%–23.0% and 15.5%–18.7% in the wet and dry seasons, respectively. AWD water regime did not importantly change the soil characteristics after crop harvest. This study concludes that AWD, especially AWD15 and AWD20, has the potential to reduce GHG emissions without affecting the quantity and quality of rice yield, along with saving water.

A Review of Alternative Processes for Green Hydrogen Production Focused on Generating Hydrogen from Biomass

Hydrogen plays a leading role in achieving a future with net zero greenhouse gas emissions. The present challenge is producing green hydrogen to cover the fuel demands of transportation and industry to gain independence from fossil fuels. This review’s goal is to critically demonstrate the existing methods of biomass treatment and assess their ability to scale up. Biomass is an excellent hydrogen carrier and biomass-derived processes are the main target for hydrogen production as they provide an innovative pathway to green hydrogen production. Comparing the existing processes, thermochemical treatment is found to be far more evolved than biological or electrochemical treatment, especially with regard to scaling prospects.

Projected Global Temperature Changes After Net Zero Are Small But Significant

AbstractAs more countries make net zero greenhouse gas emissions pledges, it is crucial to understand the effects on global climate after achieving net zero emissions. The climate has been found to continue to evolve even after the abrupt cessation of CO2 emissions, with some models simulating a small warming and others simulating a small cooling. In this study, we analyze if the temperature and precipitation changes post abrupt cessation of CO2 emissions are significantly different compared to natural climate variations. We find that the temperature changes are outside of natural variability for most models, whilst the precipitation changes are mostly non‐significant. We also demonstrate that post‐net zero temperature changes have implications for the remaining carbon budget. The possibility of further global warming post‐net zero adds to the evidence supporting more rapid emissions reductions in the near‐term.

Reducing the environmental impact of inhalers in primary care

Climate change is having a negative effect on our health and on our planet. The NHS has made a commitment to achieve net zero greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE) by 2050 as a way of addressing this. Switching pressurised metered dose inhalers (pMDIs) to dry powder inhalers (DPIs) has the potential to significantly reduce GHGEs. The primary aim of this systematic review was to establish how to make sustainable inhaler changes in primary care that do not compromise patient care and outcomes. pMDI devices have a significantly higher global warming potential than DPIs, but the latter are not suited to everyone. In patients unsuited to DPI devices, changing prescribing habits can help to lower emissions. Returning inhalers to pharmacies for incineration also lowers global warming potential. DPI devices are easier to use and are linked with improved health outcomes. It is possible to lower the carbon footprint of inhalers by switching pMDI to DPI, and through education and changed prescribing habits.

Defining national net zero goals is critical for food and land use policy

The identification of agriculture and land use configurations that achieve net zero (NZ) greenhouse gas emissions is critical to inform appropriate land use and food policy, yet national NZ targets lack consistent definitions. Here, 3000 randomised scenarios projecting future agricultural production and compatible land use combinations in Ireland were screened using ten NZ definitions. When aggregating carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide emissions using various methods, 1–85% of scenarios met NZ criteria. Despite considerable variation, common actions emerged across definitions, including high rates of afforestation, organic soil re-wetting, and cattle destocking. Ambitious technical abatement of agricultural emissions moderated, but could not substitute, these actions. With abatement, 95th percentile milk output varied from 11–91% of 2021 output, but was associated with reductions of up to 98% in suckler-beef production, and a 47–387% increase in forest cover. Achieving NZ will thus require transformation of Ireland’s land sector. Lagging land use change effects require urgent action, but sustaining a just transition will require visioning of future NZ land use combinations supporting a sustainable and resilient food system, alongside an expanding circular bioeconomy. We provide new insight into the sensitivity of such visioning to NZ definitions, pointing to an urgent need for international consensus on the accounting of methane emissions in NZ targets.

Operational Insights and Future Potential of the Database for Positive Energy Districts

This paper presents the Positive Energy District Database (PED DB), a pivotal web tool developed collaboratively by the COST Action ‘PED-EU-NET’, in alignment with international initiatives such as JPI Urban Europe and IEA EBC Annex 83. The PED DB represents a crucial step towards sharing knowledge, promoting collaboration, reinforcing decision-making, and advancing the understanding of Positive Energy Districts (PEDs) in the pursuit of sustainable urban environments. The PED DB aims to comprehensively map and disseminate information on PEDs across Europe, serving as a dynamic resource for sustainable urban development according to the objective of making the EU climate-neutral by 2050. Indeed, PEDs imply an integrated approach for designing urban areas—the districts—where a cluster of interconnected buildings and energy communities produce net zero greenhouse gas emissions, managing an annual local/regional overflow production of renewable energy. The paper describes the collaborative step-by-step process leading to the PED DB implementation, the current results and potentials of the online platform, and introduces its future developments towards a more user-friendly and stakeholders-tailored tool. The interactive web map offers a customizable visualizations and filters on multiple information related to PED case studies, PED-relevant cases, and PED Labs. Users can access detailed information through a table view, facilitating comparisons across different PED projects and their implementation phase. The paper offers insights and detailed analysis from the initial dataset that includes 23 PED cases and 7 PED-related projects from 13 European countries, highlighting the key characteristics of surveyed PEDs.

Reducing the environmental impact of inhalers in primary care

Climate change is having a negative effect on our health and on our planet. The NHS has made a commitment to achieve net zero greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE) by 2050 as a way of addressing this. Switching pressurised metered dose inhalers (pMDIs) to dry powder inhalers (DPIs) has the potential to significantly reduce GHGEs. The primary aim of this systematic review was to establish how to make sustainable inhaler changes in primary care that do not compromise patient care and outcomes. pMDI devices have a significantly higher global warming potential than DPIs, but the latter are not suited to everyone. In patients unsuited to DPI devices, changing prescribing habits can help to lower emissions. Returning inhalers to pharmacies for incineration also lowers global warming potential. DPI devices are easier to use and are linked with improved health outcomes. It is possible to lower the carbon footprint of inhalers by switching pMDI to DPI, and through education and changed prescribing habits.

Germany's public EV charging points: Analysing the 2023 state of expansion

AbstractThe European Climate Law sets a legally binding target of net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. In this regard, in 2023 the EU Environmental Council decided that from 2035 onwards only CO2‐neutral new cars will be licensed in the European Union. Simultaneously, since the energy crisis caused by the Russian invasion of Ukraine, fuel prices increased in Germany. This has made more and more households think about purchasing an e‐car. However, not every household has the opportunity to install their own wallbox, and when travelling long distances, e‐car users are dependent on the availability of ample public charging stations. Against this background, with a special focus on rural areas, this paper considers the questions whether and where spatial inequalities in the accessibility of public charging stations might currently exist. To approach these questions, based on an empirical analysis of the 2023 official location data of public charging points in Germany, we examine the nationwide distribution, accessibility and available capacity of public charging stations in Germany at small‐scale from the point of view of the ‘household’ as well as those who travel by e‐car within Germany. In order to evaluate the location data of public charging stations we mainly use raster‐based accessibility analysis methods as well as isotropic kernel intensity estimates. We found that, in contrast to the common belief, the network of public charging stations is quite dense. However, taking a closer look reveals that the charging infrastructure in Germany has so far been tailored to the needs of intra‐regional travelers (commuting, shopping, leisure) rather than to those of the residential population with no access to their own wallbox (daily recharging in close proximity to one‘s home) or the mid‐ to long‐distance travelers.

Towards net zero: Evaluating energy security in Singapore using system dynamics modelling

Faced with international climate obligations and domestic pressure, Singapore has recently raised its climate goals significantly. The government had affirmed its intention for carbon emissions to peak before 2030 and for Singapore to attain net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. However, as Singapore transitions to green energy, there remains much uncertainty if this transformation, coupled with rapidly evolving geopolitics, would present vulnerabilities to energy security. Hence, this paper is an attempt to investigate Singapore's possible paths to achieve these goals while enhancing energy security in view of present and future energy plans. Key parameters of energy security in Singapore's context are identified to determine how different policy decisions would influence them. The effects of various current and potential policies can thus be evaluated using a systems thinking and system dynamics approach to propose new energy solutions to improve energy security. System dynamics modelling reveals that new energy supply solutions would have to be considered in Singapore's Energy 2050 Plan while furthering efforts in reducing energy demand. Findings reveal that Singapore should have a target of >80% renewable energy by 2050, pursue a central strategy towards sustainable diversification of its energy sources into hydrogen, electricity imports and solar energy and reduce energy consumption. Accordingly, Singapore's energy security can then be improved in terms of the economic, energy supply chain and environmental dimensions, and towards attaining net-zero emissions.

Towards energy freedom: Exploring sustainable solutions for energy independence and self-sufficiency using integrated renewable energy-driven hydrogen system

In the pursuit of sustainable energy solutions, the integration of renewable energy sources and hydrogen technologies has emerged as a promising avenue. This paper introduces the Integrated Renewable Energy-Driven Hydrogen System as a holistic approach to achieve energy independence and self-sufficiency. Seamlessly integrating renewable energy sources, hydrogen production, storage, and utilization, this system enables diverse applications across various sectors. By harnessing solar and/or wind energy, the Integrated Renewable Energy-Driven Hydrogen System optimizes energy generation, distribution, and storage. Employing a systematic methodology, the paper thoroughly examines the advantages of this integrated system over other alternatives, emphasizing its zero greenhouse gas emissions, versatility, energy resilience, and potential for large-scale hydrogen production. Thus, the proposed system sets our study apart, offering a distinct and efficient alternative compared to conventional approaches. Recent advancements and challenges in hydrogen energy are also discussed, highlighting increasing public awareness and technological progress. Findings reveal a payback period ranging from 2.8 to 6.7 years, depending on the renewable energy configuration, emphasizing the economic attractiveness and potential return on investment. This research significantly contributes to the ongoing discourse on renewable energy integration and underscores the viability of the Integrated Renewable Energy-Driven Hydrogen System as a transformative solution for achieving energy independence. The employed model is innovative and transferable to other contexts.

Role of green hydrogen in the decarbonization of the energy system in Thailand

High dependence on fossil fuels to meet the energy demand is the major source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in Thailand. Decarbonization of the energy system to achieve the pledged climate targets is a challenging task for Thailand. The role of green hydrogen and hydrogen-based technologies in Thailand's energy transition needs to be explored. A bottom-up energy system model developed using AIM/Enduse framework has been used to assess the energy system transformation required with the focus on the role of hydrogen in achieving net zero GHG emissions. A business-as-usual (BAU) scenario and two net zero emissions (NZE) scenarios with low and high-hydrogen use have been assessed. This study finds that GHG emission reduction in the power sector and the transport sector would be the major contributor in achieving net zero emission in 2050 compared to the projected emissions in the BAU level. Energy efficiency improvement in the demand side would lower the electricity consumption compared to the BAU level despite the higher electrification of the end-use technologies. However, the demand to produce green hydrogen in the NZE scenarios would increase the electricity generation in 2050 b y up to 54 % compared to the BAU level. The capacity of electrolyser would reach 50 GW by 2050 in the high hydrogen use scenario. This would require additional solar and wind power capacity of 107 GW and 43 GW, respectively. In addition, it would require 50 million cubic meters of water. Cumulative investments in electrolysers to produce green hydrogen and renewable based power generation during 2031–2050 would be USD 122 billion.

Comprehensive assessment of the carbon neutrality actions from the automotive sector

AbstractThe aim of this paper is to analyse and demonstrate the carbon neutrality actions of a special facility in the context of the automotive sector. In order to analyse the emissions, a carbon simulation model is developed. Offsetting options are also overviewed in a systematic way. We provide a methodology for a systematic analysis of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and offsetting opportunities of an automotive facility. We compile an inventory of the carbon emissions, identify offsetting options and prepare a cost–benefit analysis of the mitigation actions. The relevance of United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is also assessed. We examine the GHG emissions of an automotive proving ground, ZalaZone in Zalaegerszeg, Hungary, as a case study. Four scenarios with various shares of decarbonisation options have been proposed to achieve the vision of net zero GHG emissions. It was found that net zero emission is achievable. The CBA concluded that the net present value is negative; however, there are significant external benefits. It was revealed that the operation of the facility contributes to multiple SDGs and provides different pathways to carbon neutrality.

Idaho national laboratory to demonstrate collaboration first versus competition to accelerate achieving a secure clean energy future by 2031

Idaho National Laboratory (INL) announced at COP27 it would reach net zero greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 2031. As a Nuclear, Energy and Environment, and National Homeland Security laboratory, the predominant solution to closing the clean energy gap will include nuclear as a safe, clean, reliable and affordable electricity source with the additional benefit of producing heat and hydrogen to fuel INL's large transportation fleet.INL's collaboration first vs. competition is essential to the program's success. The focused actions in INL's Nuclear Roadmap include: Infrastructure, Licensing/Regulatory, Financial, Time to Market, Fuel Cycle and Public Confidence/Communications. The roadmap also includes nuclear technology innovations and creative partnerships with utility providers, regulators, businesses, community members, and Indigenous Peoples to accelerate deployment of advanced reactors.Through development of the Net-Zero Nuclear Roadmap, INL will offer a model to provide safe and secure energy for the nation and the world by: (1) establishing the necessary infrastructure on its 890-square mile site to support demonstration, (2) showing proven pathways through the licensing and regulation process, (3) partnering with utilities to ensure commercial application, and (4) collaborating with industry to site new technologies.

ENSURING BALANCE BETWEEN GOALS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, COMPETITIVENESS AND ENERGY SECURITY

The study is devoted to determining the future framework of the world’s energy development in the new geostrategic realities associated with military conflicts in the world and the problem of global warming. It was examined emerging trends in achieving global net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 and decarbonization efforts in the study. It was determined that the war in Ukraine became a catalyst for the energy transition in the world. It is noted that in order to achieve climate goals, it is necessary to increase the production of nuclear energy by three times by 2050. This provision was recorded in the declaration on triple nuclear energy at the UN Climate Change Conference (Dubai) in 2023. It is also noted that hydrogen energy is one of the technologies of clean energy and has great perspective, although the infrastructure associated with the use of this energy resource is currently very expensive. Attention is focused on the need to ensure a balance between the goals of sustainable development, competitiveness and energy security. The focus on secure supply chains and energy access and market stability issues is updated. It has been determined that in the new geostrategic realities, attention is focused on the fact that competitiveness must be considered through the prism of «green competitiveness». Jointly solving the issues of sustainable development, competitiveness and energy security is important for building a sustainable economy in the new geostrategic realities associated with military conflicts in the world and the problem of global warming. The logic of the formation of the future framework of energy development in the world in new geostrategic realities from the definition of the conceptual basis and technological support of energy security and competitiveness of the national economy has been presented in the work. At the same time, energy security is crucial for maintaining economic stability and achieving the goals of sustainable development. R