Zero-emission Vehicles Research Articles

Development of Traction Motor for New Zero-Emission Vehicle

Development of Traction Motor for New Zero-Emission Vehicle

Weather Observations of Remote Polar Areas Using an AWS Onboard a Unique Zero-Emissions Polar Vehicle

AbstractThe Antarctic Plateau is one of the land areas with the largest gaps in surface weather observations on Earth, gaps that are usually filled with simulations provided by climate models. However, these simulated values must be ground-validated, which is particularly difficult and costly in remote polar regions. We designed and developed a Mobile Automatic Weather Station (M-AWS) which, on board a zero-emissions polar vehicle, recorded a large set of ground measurements that could be used to evaluate numerical weather simulations in an inexpensive way during the Year of Polar Prediction Southern Hemisphere Special Observing Period (YOPP). The M-AWS registered several weather variables over a transect of 2538 km in the East Antarctic Plateau. These meteorological data were also used by other scientific projects that were part of the expedition and for improving weather forecasting during the mission. The innovative design of the M-AWS overcame the main challenges imposed by the harsh conditions of a voyage in one of the world’s most extreme regions.

Inventory and fleet purchase decisions under a sustainable regulatory environment

ABSTRACTThis work studies the direct impacts of environmental policies on logistics practices. Specifically, the authors estimate the potential changes in inventory and fleet purchase decisions under a set of policies designed to improve the environmental efficiency of transport activities, through a reduction of overall transportation emissions; and requirements for a fleet mix to include zero and near-zero emission vehicle technologies, or, minimum vehicle type shares. The work introduces a constrained stochastic multi-objective joint replenishment problem (S-MJRP) to evaluate the policies while considering logistics costs and emissions as objectives. Moreover, the authors developed a solution algorithm and conducted empirical analyses. The results highlight the trade-off between capital investments in zero-emission vehicles and the logistics costs required to abide by the requirements of the mentioned regulatory policies. The results provide insights for both private and public stakeholders as they consider the logistics challenges and opportunities generated by these sustainability policies.

Promoting zero-emissions vehicles using robust multi-period tradable credit scheme

This study designs a robust multi-period tradable credit scheme (TCS) to incentivize travelers to shift from internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) to zero-emissions vehicles (ZEVs) over a long-term planning horizon to reduce vehicular emissions. The need for robust design arises because of uncertainty in forecasting travel demand over a planning horizon in the order of several years. The robust multi-period TCS design is formulated as a bi-level model. In the upper level, the central authority (CA) determines the TCS parameters (credit allocation and charging schemes) by vehicle type to minimize the worst-case vehicular emissions rate, i.e. the maximum vehicular emissions rate under the possible travel demand scenarios. The upper-level model is a mixed-integer nonlinear program. In the lower level, travelers minimize their generalized travel costs under the TCS parameters obtained in the upper level. These parameters are used to determine the vehicle type choice, between ICEVs and ZEVs, using a binomial logit function, and influence route selection based on the difference in credits charged on links for these two vehicle types. The lower-level model is a mathematical program with equilibrium constraints. The bi-level model is solved using a cutting plane method. Numerical experiments illustrate that the incentive to shift to ZEVs is fostered by allocating more credits and charging fewer credits to ZEV travelers compared to ICEV travelers. Further, the proposed TCS design reduces volatility in the realized vehicular emissions rates under different travel demand scenarios compared to a TCS design that does not consider demand uncertainty.

An overview of key evolutions in the light-duty vehicle sector and their impact on oil demand

The light-duty vehicle (LDV) sector is undergoing many changes, including technological advancements (e.g., vehicle electrification, automation), new business models (e.g., ride-hailing), and government regulations and policies (e.g., fuel economy (FE) standards, zero-emission vehicle mandates, infrastructure investments, and incentives to encourage adoption of alternative fuel vehicles). Despite significant uncertainty, these developments, combined with demographic growth, will influence the future LDV fleet size and composition, and consequently the oil demand from LDVs. This paper provides a review of changes in the LDV sector and an assessment of their impact on oil demand. It takes into account the impact of LDV fleet growth, increasing penetration of electric vehicles (EVs) and alternative fuels (focus on biofuels), and improvements in internal combustion engine vehicles’ (ICEV) FE. Our analysis indicates that oil demand in 2040 could remain unchanged relative to 2016, but depending on the development of certain trends, demand could shrink or increase by ~6 million barrels per day (±25% relative to 2016). Our findings suggest that ICEV FE improvements could have a much greater impact on oil demand than the emergence of EVs. Moreover, preliminary research indicates that automation and shared mobility could reinforce the economic attractiveness of EVs, thereby increasing their penetration and impact on oil demand. Because of uncertainties in the development of these two trends by 2040 and difficulties in quantifying the complex interactions, we have not captured these effects in our model. Therefore, the range of uncertainty on the oil demand evolution could be even higher than our model indicates.

Overpotential Analysis of Low Loading Pt/C Electrodes at Low Humidity Conditions

In 2014, the transportation sector accounted for 35.3% of all greenhouse gas emissions in the State of Connecticut [1]. A significant amount of greenhouse gases emitted can be primarily attributed to the use of fossil fuels in passenger vehicles and other light-duty trucks. In an effort to reduce the amount of transportation-related emissions, there is a need to produce low- and zero-emission vehicles, such as fuel cell vehicles. Compared to vehicles with traditional internal combustion engines which emit greenhouse gases, fuel cell vehicles only emit water vapor. Through research and development of fuel cell and electrolyzer technologies, fuel cell vehicles have the potential to significantly reduce the greenhouse gas emissions related to the transportation sector. In order to improve the viability of fuel cell vehicles, fuel cell performance must be optimized at low relative humidity conditions while keeping production costs low. One such method for improving the fuel cell performance at low relative humidity is examined by changing the ionomer used in the fuel cell electrodes. Research has been shown that reducing the ionomer side chain length as well as reducing the ionomer equivalent weight may be beneficial to low humidity operation [2]. While low humidity operation is important, fuel cell production costs must also be kept to a minimum in order to offer these zero-emission vehicles to a broader market. The primary method that will be used in this work to reduce the cost of fuel cell production is Reactive Spray Deposition Technology (RSDT). RSDT is a one-step flame-based process which can directly spray a Pt/C electrode onto a membrane using without additional drying steps. Previous work by Yu et al examined the use of RSDT to create low Pt loading electrodes for fuel cell applications [3]. With the cost-effective RSDT method chosen for the development of the fuel cells, the RSDT-produced catalyst coated membranes (CCMs) will be tested in 100% relative humidity conditions as a baseline as well as reduced humidity conditions used in fuel cell vehicle applications. While it is important to improve low humidity fuel cell performance, it is important to have a better understanding of how low humidity directly impacts the electrochemical mechanism. This work will analyze collected polarization and impedance data using a six-step overpotential analysis technique used by Yu et al [3, 4]. This overpotential analysis looks to separate the contributions of different polarization sources to have a better understanding of what is impacting the cell performance. This technique used at low humidity should allow us to have a better understanding about low humidity operation and how to improve fuel cell production by minimizing losses. The work presented will incorporate the RSDT process to make the change in ionomer with the target of improving and better understanding the performance of the fuel cells at low humidity conditions. Along with utilizing the six levels of overpotential analysis technique, we can determine how the changes to the ionomer and membrane as well as the carbon support all affect the polarization sources which will allow to better optimize the fuel cells moving and improve the future viability of fuel cell vehicles.

An Experimental Investigation of Electrical and Thermal Performance of Battery Pack for Zero Emission Vehicle

A motor transport is a leading cause of the negative ecological situation and the excessive use of non-renewable resources. Increasing the volume of emissions from the operation of internal combustion engines and increasing consumption of hydrocarbon fuel are factors that stimulate the development of electric vehicles which are environmentally friendly and energy efficient. However, today electric vehicles are difficult to counter conventional cars in terms of cost and performance, determined mainly by characteristics and operating modes of traction battery packs. This article considers some topical issues related to the practical implementation of traction battery packs based on lithium-ion cells. The electric and thermal characteristics of the battery pack are considered by the authors in conditions of a discharge mode simulation. This is believed to be a the technical solution for the implementation of a modular battery pack, The present experimental investigations give qualitative and quantitative evaluation of the heat release of lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) cells and demonstrate the efficiency of the realized passive air cooling. This article partly fills the gap existing with regard to real (experimental) data on temperature conditions and heat release of NMC-cells in battery packs of electric vehicles.

An integrated quantitative-qualitative study to monitor the utilization and assess the perception of hydrogen fueling stations

Zero-emission vehicle (ZEV) adoption is one of the critical solutions to decarbonize the transportation sector. Among the ZEV fleet in the US, battery electric vehicles (BEV) have been leading the market penetration. However, hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) have also been increasingly adopted in recent years. Although both technologies have challenges with infrastructure, unlike BEVs that have multiple venues for charging (home, work or public), FCEVs rely solely on fueling at public hydrogen stations, and their availability is a significant factor before the vehicle purchase. Therefore, for the success of FCEV adoption, a need to monitor and understand the driver satisfaction of these stations is extremely critical. This research project introduces a quantitative-qualitative approach for continuous monitoring of hydrogen stations based on the station utilization patterns and to assess their preferability based on driver experiences. To illustrate a proof-of-concept, we collected the hourly utilization data of all the hydrogen fueling stations in California for three months. The time-series data was used to develop a capacity-independent term called “Normalized Relative Utilization Index” (NRUI) that encapsulates the utilization pattern of each station to a single metric. We spatially regressed this metric over the number of FCEVs present in the neighborhood to deduce the relationship. We designed a survey to obtain the refueling experiences of FCEV drivers, where about 100 participants responded with their station preferences. Their answers were used to validate the quantitative approach and identify a “Satisfactory Utilization Range” (SUR) of stations which are preferred by most drivers. Though this project illustrates the analysis of data collected over a small period, this approach is easily scalable with new station installations and can be implemented as a continuous monitoring system with real-time station utilization data. We believe this demand-focused approach could complement the existing supply-side monitoring methods on station performance to provide a smoother fueling experience to drivers. We are also releasing the hourly station capacity dataset that was collected as a part of this study to the research community.

Strategic intentions to the diffusion of electric mobility paradigm: The case of internal combustion engine vehicle

The automobile industry is currently undergoing a profound change. Stringent emission standards coupled with issues of climate change and technological advances in alternative powertrain technologies are forcing the industry to set new strategic courses. While the electric vehicles are not yet profitable, their growing market share and advancement in battery technology will pose a considerable substitution risk for incumbent firms. Incumbent firms can react to this changed environment by implementing one of the three generic strategies, which are “exit”, “switch” and the “sailing ship effect” (SSE). Prior research has documented SSE as an explanatory factor for continuous improvement in conventional propulsion technology in light of facing a major technology transition towards electric mobility. To further contribute to the discussion on patterns of strategic intention, we propose an additional perspective on strategic action pattern in response to technological competition threat. To this end, the underlying pace of ICEV (internal combustion engine vehicle) technology development and its evolutionary technology path were examined by employing a patent-based analysis framework. The findings show that although the ICEV technology has entered into maturity stage, a complete departure from conventional combustion engines is not in sight for the next few decades. Moreover, we provide empirical evidence for a mimicry-based technological evolution pattern in the field of ICEV. This study can provide valuable insight for R&D managers and policy makers seeking to facilitate the transition from conventional vehicles to zero-emission vehicles.

Understanding potential for battery electric vehicle adoption using large-scale consumer profile data

Ten U.S. states have set mandated sales targets for zero-emission vehicles that could result in significant reductions in fuel consumption and carbon emissions. Battery electric vehicle (BEV) adoption is considered integral to achieving this mandate and thus a better understanding of potential BEV buyers is needed. Because of limitations of stated-preference surveys, we developed a data mining approach to identify potential buyers using revealed-preference data. We apply the approach to a nationally representative survey of 88,404 new car buyers that includes respondents’ geographic, demographic and psychographic characteristics. We find that BEVs have the potential to reach an annual U.S. market share of 2.4%. To achieve this, BEVs with added features must be sold at a lower price. The costs of the improved features combined with the eventual removal of purchase subsidies will offset the forecasted declines in battery costs. BEVs face stiff competition from fuel-efficient gasoline vehicles and thus policies promoting their sales such as the fuel economy standards may reduce BEV’s growth.

Content Analysis of Interviews with Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle Drivers in Los Angeles

Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (HFCVs) are zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs) and their widespread adoption may help to mitigate some of the issues arising from fossil-fuel usage in the transportation sector. Only in recent years have these vehicles become available for purchase or lease in the United States, and only within the State of California. In 2018, nearly 5,500 HFCVs had been sold or leased in California, supported by a developing refueling infrastructure there. This population represents a unique opportunity, as previous studies on HFCV adoption have largely employed hypothetical stated preference surveys distributed to likely adopters. Seeking to investigate the real experiences of actual adopters from their own perspectives, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 12 early adopters of HFCVs in the Los Angeles metropolitan area. Thematic content analysis of these interviews was conducted to identify the prevalence of factors deductively derived from published literature. All respondents considered lifetime cost of vehicle ownership, engaged in comparison shopping, and assessed the adequacy of the refueling infrastructure by various geographical criteria. Environmental concerns motivated many respondents to pursue HFCV adoption, though only if it made financial sense. Respondents chose HFCVs over battery electric vehicles after consideration of range, refueling time, and cost. Early HFCV adopters consistently cast their adoption of the technology as a contribution to a diverse ZEV marketplace. Strategies for the promotion of HFCV technology must account for this range of variation in early-adopter motivations, concerns, and behaviors which might complicate targeted HFCV promotion strategies.

(Invited) Nano-Structured ORR Catalysts for PEM Fuel Cells

Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) are the most attractive power source for zero-emission vehicles owing to their environmental friendliness, high energy efficiency, and high power density. However, their high cost and low durability have prevented PEMFCs from being fully implemented and commercialized, mainly due to the use of platinum as a catalyst to overcome the sluggish kinetics of the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) in the cathode. To reduce the use of Pt, extensive studies have been conducted and a large variety of ORR catalysts have been developed, such as Pt-M alloys as well as shape-controlled, dealloyed, and structurally ordered catalysts. Although those catalysts exhibited excellent intrinsic activity in aqueous environment, they have been hardly implemented in membrane-electrode assemblies (MEAs) for practical application. In this talk, we report Pt-M intermetallic catalysts and M-doped PtNi octahedral nanoparticles on a carbon support (M-PtNi/C) that exhibit superior catalytic activity and stability in half-cell and MEA tests as an ORR catalyst for PEMFCs. To prevent agglomeration of Pt-M nanoparticles during heat treatment in which to transform the Pt-M alloy into Pt-M intermetallic structure, a facile synthetic process was conducted at low temperatures. Octahedral PtNi nanoparticles are known as one of the best ORR catalyst with its superior activity toward ORR. However, dissolution of Ni from the surface and collapse of the octahedral shape degrade the activity rapidly under the PEMFC operation conditions. To stabilize Ni and the octahedral shape, small amount of dopant was incorporated into the surface of octahedral PtNi. Electrochemical, chemical, and structural stability was thoroughly investigated through a harsh durability test. The effects of intermetallic structure and doping elements on the surface properties of Pt-based nanoparticles were examined by X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS) analysis and density functional theory (DFT) calculation.

Alternative-fuel-vehicle policy interactions increase U.S. greenhouse gas emissions

The transportation sector is currently the largest contributor of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the United States, and light-duty vehicles produce the majority of transportation emissions. Federal standards for fleet-averaged vehicle GHG emission rates and their corresponding corporate average fuel economy standards cap GHG emissions of the US light-duty vehicle fleet. In addition, two key policies aim to encourage a future fleet transition to alternative fuel vehicle (AFV) technologies: (1) incentives that treat AFVs favorably in the federal GHG standard, and (2) state zero-emissions vehicle (ZEV) policy, which mandates AFV sales in some states. While each of these AFV policies can encourage AFV adoption, we show that net GHG emissions increase when both policies are present simultaneously. Specifically, we estimate changes in life cycle GHG emissions and gasoline consumption, relative to a pure federal fleet GHG standard (without AFV incentives or mandates), resulting from the introduction of (1) AFV incentives in federal fleet GHG policy, (2) state ZEV mandates, and (3) the combination of the two. We find that under fairly general conditions the combined AFV policies produce higher GHG emissions than either policy alone. This result is a consequence of state mandates increasing AFV sales in the presence of federal incentives that relax the fleet GHG standard when AFVs are sold. Using AFV sales projections from the Energy Information Administration and the California Air Resources Board, we estimate that the combined policies produce an increase on the order of 100 million tons of CO2 emissions cumulatively for new passenger cars sold from 2012 through 2025 relative to a pure GHG standard. AFV incentives in the GHG standard conflate policy goals by encouraging AFV adoption at the cost of higher fleet GHG emissions, and they permit even higher fleet GHG emissions when other policies, such as the ZEV mandate, increase AFV adoption.

Evaluating the Efficacy of Zero-Emission Vehicle Deployment Strategies: The Maryland Case

This study aimed to develop a model to estimate the impacts of zero-emission vehicle (ZEV) adoption on CO2 emissions and to evaluate efficacy of ZEV deployment strategies in achieving greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction goals. We proposed a modeling scheme to represent ZEVs in four-step trip-based travel demand models. We then tested six ZEV scenarios that were a cross-combination of three ZEV ownership levels and two ZEV operating cost levels. The proposed modeling scheme and scenarios were implemented on the Maryland Statewide Transportation Model (MSTM) to analyze the impacts of different ZEV ownership and cost combinations on travel patterns and on CO2 emissions. The main findings were the following: (1) A high-ZEV ownership scenario (43.14% of households with ZEVs) could achieve about a 16% reduction in statewide carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2Eq) emissions from 2015 base year levels; and (2) CO2Eq emissions at a future year baseline (2030) (the Constrained Long-Range Plan) level dropped by approximately 11% in low-ZEV ownership scenarios, 17% in medium-ZEV ownership scenarios, and 32% in high-ZEV ownership scenarios. The high-ZEV ownership results also indicated a more balanced distribution of emissions per unit area or per vehicle mile traveled among different counties.

Manufacturing competitiveness analysis for hydrogen refueling stations

Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) have now entered the market as zero-emission vehicles. Original equipment manufacturers such as Toyota, Honda, and Hyundai have released commercial cars in parallel with efforts focusing on the development of hydrogen refueling infrastructure to support new FCEV fleets. Persistent challenges for FCEVs include high initial vehicle cost and the availability of hydrogen stations to support FCEV fleets. This study sheds light on the factors that drive manufacturing competitiveness of the principal systems in hydrogen refueling stations, including compressors, storage tanks, precoolers, and dispensers. To explore major cost drivers and investigate possible cost reduction areas, bottom-up manufacturing cost models were developed for these systems. Results from these manufacturing cost models show there is substantial room for cost reductions through economies of scale, as fixed costs can be spread over more units. Results also show that purchasing larger quantities of commodity and purchased parts can drive significant cost reductions. Intuitively, these cost reductions will be reflected in lower hydrogen fuel prices. A simple cost analysis shows there is some room for cost reduction in the manufacturing cost of the hydrogen refueling station systems, which could reach 35% or more when achieving production rates of more than 100 units per year. We estimated the potential cost reduction in hydrogen compression, storage and dispensing as a result of capital cost reduction to reach 5% or more when hydrogen refueling station systems are produced at scale.

Impact of next-generation vehicles on tropospheric ozone estimated by chemical transport model in the Kanto region of Japan

The plans to introduce next-generation hybrid and zero-emission vehicles in the market are now enacted by governments in many countries to manage both global warming and air pollution problems. There are only a few studies evaluating the effects of the next-generation vehicles on the changes in concentrations of ozone generated by the photochemical reactions between volatile organic compounds and nitrogen oxides (NOx). To evaluate these changes, we performed chemical transport modeling in the Kanto region, Japan in the summer of 2013. The results show that if the vehicles are substituted by hybrid vehicles, average ozone concentrations increase in urban areas and decrease in suburban areas due to NOx titration. Substitution with zero-emission passenger vehicles decreases the concentrations in both urban and suburban areas. Substitution with both hybrid and zero-emission passenger and heavy-duty vehicles highly increases the concentrations in urban areas. Using the model results, we also discuss the effect of ozone concentration changes on premature mortality of humans in summer. The results suggest that, in some cases the introduction of next-generation vehicles might exasperate ozone concentrations, even leading to 5 to 10 times higher premature mortality during the summer compared to that of influenza and heat stroke in Japan.

Zero Emission Buses: State of the Industry and Deployment Best Practices

Like most US transportation sectors, public transit is transitioning to zero-emission vehicles. This presentation will provide a breakdown of the state of the zero-emission bus (ZEB) industry and share best practices for deploying zero-emission buses. The Center for Transportation and the Environment (CTE) has collected US ZEB cumulative awards and sales data as well as product offerings available from bus manufacturers in the ZEB space. The results show a ten-fold increase in ZEB annual awards and sales from 2009 to 2017, with battery electric buses now making up about 6% of annual transit bus purchases. Product offerings by battery electric bus manufacturers show an increase in battery capacity and nominal range as newer models are unveiled, with vendor reported ranges averaging 200 miles. ZEBs include both battery electric and fuel cell electric technologies, with fuel cell electric buses offering ranges and refueling operations more similar to conventional bus technologies. Thus, best practices for deployment of a battery electric bus revolve around determination of expected real range in a given application and planning route service and charging operations to fit this range. Best practices for both ZEB technologies include evaluating infrastructure costs at scale. On-board energy storage capacity and nominal ranges for all ZEBs are expected to increase and improve over time. CTE is presently working with more than 60 transit agencies purchasing and deploying ZEBs.

Evaluating the effectiveness of electric vehicle subsidies in Canada

The electrification of transportation has been identified as a necessary aspect of climate change mitigation in order to limit global temperatures to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and prevent potentially catastrophic effects on the environment. Despite this, in Canada and most other developed countries, consumers have been slow to adopt electric vehicles. In March of 2019, to encourage increased adoption of electric vehicles, the government of Canada announced a new federal EV subsidy program that will offer a rebate of up to $5000 on the purchase of zero-emission vehicles. When evaluating the costs and benefits of such a program, it is important to consider that the magnitude of emissions reductions achieved through EV subsidies relates to the emissions intensity of the electricity used to power the EV. In this paper, the cost-effectiveness of achieving emissions reductions through EV subsidy programs is evaluated with respect to each provincial electricity system in Canada. These results were then used to compare the cost-efficiency of EV subsidies to other investments in climate change mitigation initiatives, and ultimately decide whether EV subsidies are feasible to implement in any of Canada’s provinces.

Cost Implications for Automaker Compliance of Zero Emissions Vehicle Requirements.

While there are many automotive regulations in the United States, few studies in the literature examine the interaction between different rules. We investigate the cost implications of enforcing the national Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions standards and the Zero Emissions Vehicle (ZEV) requirements simultaneously. We construct a new "Cost Optimization Modeling for Efficiency Technologies" (COMET) to understand how vehicle manufacturers implement fuel economy technologies to comply with multiple regulations. We consider a variety of scenarios to measure the interaction between regulations and how they may lead to changes in technology costs. In 2025, unit costs reach $1,600 per vehicle on average to comply with CAFE/GHG and increase to $2,000 per vehicle on average to comply with both CAFE/GHG and ZEV. Unit costs for both regulations are less than the sum of the two because vehicles produced to comply with the ZEV program count toward compliance with the CAFE.

Latent demand for zero-emissions vehicles in Canada (Part 2): Insights from a stated choice experiment

This is Part 2 of a two-part study that explores latent demand for three types of zero-emissions vehicles (ZEVs): plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), battery electric vehicles (BEVs), and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (HFCVs). Using an in-depth, Reflexive Participant approach to data collection, our survey instrument includes two measures of latent demand implemented with a representative sample of 2123 new vehicle-buying households in Canada in 2017. While Part 1 (Long et al., this issue) reports on a design space exercise, here we summarize results from a stated choice experiment, using a latent class choice model to quantify respondent preferences and motivations, and the heterogeneity therein. We identify five unique respondent classes (or segments) that largely differ by their preferred drivetrain, only three of which demonstrate significant interest in ZEVs: PEV-enthusiast (representing 13% of the sample), PHEV-oriented (22%), and ZEV-neutral (21%). Respondents in all three classes tend to have higher levels of environmental concern or engagement in an environment-oriented lifestyle. All classes significantly value purchase price and incentives, but vary widely in valuation of fuel savings, charging access, and refueling access – with little overall valuation of driving range and public charging access. We calculate conditional choice probabilities as estimates of ZEV latent demand, which is equivalent to 29% of new market share under base conditions, and significantly increases to a high of 49% with purchase incentives and widespread charger deployment. Our discussion compares insights provided by the two stated response approaches to latent demand (in Parts 1 and 2), making a case for overall complementarity.