Zebra Equus Research Articles

Immune differences in captive and free-ranging zebras (Equus zebra and E. quagga)

Wild mammals in ex situ captivity experience substantially different environmental conditions compared to free-ranging conspecifics, e.g., in terms of diet, climatic conditions, social factors, movement space, and direct anthropogenic disturbance. Moreover, animals in captivity frequently undergo management interventions such as medical treatments which may influence pathogen pressure. Captivity is known to affect immunological responses in some terrestrial and marine mammals; however, it is unclear whether this can be generalized to other taxa. Furthermore, little is known about how energetically costly life history stages such as lactation influence the immune system in wildlife. We measured expression of components of the constitutive and induced innate immunity and of the adaptive immune system in plains and mountain zebras (Equus quagga and E. zebra), including lactating and non-lactating individuals. As a proxy for general immune function, we screened for lytic equine herpesvirus (EHV) infection, a common and often latent pathogen which is reactivated in response to stress and immune challenge. Both energetically cheap markers of the constitutive innate immunity were lower in captive than in wild zebras, whereas energetically costly markers of the induced innate immunity were more highly expressed in captive zebras. Lactation was associated with higher titers of natural antibodies and lysozyme. Lytic EHV infection was not significantly correlated with any of the measured immune markers. Our results suggest that captivity and lactation may influence immune functions in zebra mares.

Effect of social organisation on interspecific differences in overmarking behaviour of foals in African equids.

Overmarking remains an unstudied topic in juvenile mammals. We have previously documented a very high rate of overmarking by foals in four captive African equid species: mountain zebra (Equus zebra), plains zebra (Equus quagga), Grévy's zebra (Equus grevyi), and African wild ass (Equus africanus). African equids vary interspecifically in their social organisation. Since differences in social organisation affect many mammalian behaviours, in this study we investigated interspecific differences in overmarking behaviour of foals, analysing only cases where elimination of any other individual was explored by a foal. We hypothesised that the pattern of overmarking by foals should reflect either differences in social organisation of the species or phylogenetic relations among them. We found that in all species very young foals explored mostly maternal eliminations, and this preference declined with increasing age of the foal and reflected the social organisation of the species; the highest overmarking rate was in species with high intragroup aggression (mountain zebra) and lowest in species with low intragroup aggression and which form crèches (African wild ass). Similarly, the rate of overmarking of the mother, as opposed to other herdmates, was associated with social organisation of the respective species. Thus, we found interspecific differences in overmarking by foals, which were associated with variability in social organisation. Since we also revealed differences between African wild ass and zebra behaviour in early stages of ontogeny, we cannot refute the effect of phylogeny on overmarking behaviour. Additionally, our results supported the identity sharing hypothesis as an explanation of overmarking.

Molecular characterization in the toll-like receptor 9 gene of Cape Mountain Zebra (Equus zebra zebra) from three populations

Toll-like receptors (TLR) are a family of proteins that signal activation of the innate immune response through the recognition of a variety of pathogen molecular compounds. Here, we characterized the complete TLR9 gene in Cape mountain zebra (Equus zebra zebra) from three populations in South Africa and compared sequences to a variety of horse and donkey breeds. Overall, we identified six single nucleotide polymorpHisms (SNPs). A single SNP (G586S) was non-synonymous, whereas the remaining SNPs were synonymous. The G586S alteration was detected in Cape mountain zebra populations with varying frequency. In addition, adaptive diversity was found to be discordant with variation based on neutral markers. The mutation is unique to the Cape mountain zebra when compared to other equid species. The structure of TLR9 is relatively conserved and the resulting amino acid substitution was found to have minimal interaction with active sites in the protein. Future studies can explore the effects of this potentially functional mutation which will contribute to our understanding of genetic diversity within adaptive sites of the Cape mountain zebra genome.

Assessing the potential of plains zebra to maintain African horse sickness in the Western Cape Province, South Africa.

African horse sickness (AHS) is a disease of equids that results in a non-tariff barrier to the trade of live equids from affected countries. AHS is endemic in South Africa except for a controlled area in the Western Cape Province (WCP) where sporadic outbreaks have occurred in the past 2 decades. There is potential that the presence of zebra populations, thought to be the natural reservoir hosts for AHS, in the WCP could maintain AHS virus circulation in the area and act as a year-round source of infection for horses. However, it remains unclear whether the epidemiology or the ecological conditions present in the WCP would enable persistent circulation of AHS in the local zebra populations. Here we developed a hybrid deterministic-stochastic vector-host compartmental model of AHS transmission in plains zebra (Equus quagga), where host populations are age- and sex-structured and for which population and AHS transmission dynamics are modulated by rainfall and temperature conditions. Using this model, we showed that populations of plains zebra present in the WCP are not sufficiently large for AHS introduction events to become endemic and that coastal populations of zebra need to be >2500 individuals for AHS to persist >2 years, even if zebras are infectious for more than 50 days. AHS cannot become endemic in the coastal population of the WCP unless the zebra population involves at least 50,000 individuals. Finally, inland populations of plains zebra in the WCP may represent a risk for AHS to persist but would require populations of at least 500 zebras or show unrealistic duration of infectiousness for AHS introduction events to become endemic. Our results provide evidence that the risk of AHS persistence from a single introduction event in a given plains zebra population in the WCP is extremely low and it is unlikely to represent a long-term source of infection for local horses.

The life history of European Middle Pleistocene equids: first insights from bone histology

ABSTRACT Evolutionary trends in body size are a central issue of study in Palaeontology. However, and despite body size being one of the most important life history traits of an animal, iconic size-decrease trends such as the one experienced by Equus during the European Pleistocene have never been analysed under a life history framework. Here, we studied the metapodial bone histology of two large Middle Pleistocene species (Equus mosbachensis and Equus steinheimensis) to reconstruct key life history traits that correlate with body size (e.g. size at birth, growth rate), and compare them with that of smaller extant Equus (Equus grevyi, Equus quagga, Equus zebra and Equus hemionus). Our results show that neonatal size of these Middle Pleistocene equids fits predictions from body mass scaling. We estimate a similar age of epiphyseal fusion for the metapodia of E. mosbachensis and E. steinheimensis and that of extant equids. Our findings also reveal that extinct equids grew at higher rates than extant Equus. This result conforms to the predictions of life history theory on environments with different levels of resource availability and provides a new framework of study for body size shifts on European Pleistocene equids.

Lessons for conservation management: Monitoring temporal changes in genetic diversity of Cape mountain zebra (Equus zebra zebra).

The Cape mountain zebra (Equus zebra zebra) is a subspecies of mountain zebra endemic to South Africa. The Cape mountain zebra experienced near extinction in the early 1900’s and their numbers have since recovered to more than 4,800 individuals. However, there are still threats to their long-term persistence. A previous study reported that Cape mountain zebra had low genetic diversity in three relict populations and that urgent conservation management actions were needed to mitigate the risk of further loss. As these suggestions went largely unheeded, we undertook the present study, fifteen years later to determine the impact of management on genetic diversity in three key populations. Our results show a substantial loss of heterozygosity across the Cape mountain zebra populations studied. The most severe losses occurred at De Hoop Nature Reserve where expected heterozygosity reduced by 22.85% from 0.385 to 0.297. This is alarming, as the De Hoop Nature Reserve was previously identified as the most genetically diverse population owing to its founders originating from two of the three remaining relict stocks. Furthermore, we observed a complete loss of multiple private alleles from all populations, and a related reduction in genetic structure across the subspecies. These losses could lead to inbreeding depression and reduce the evolutionary potential of the Cape mountain zebra. We recommend immediate implementation of evidence-based genetic management and monitoring to prevent further losses, which could jeopardise the long term survival of Cape mountain zebra, especially in the face of habitat and climate change and emerging diseases.

Genetic characteristics and phylogenetic relationship of Parascaris spp. from Equus zebra, E. caballus, and E. asinus

The equine Parascaris spp. is large, parasitic nematodes, and predominantly focuses on the intestine of foals and young weanlings. There are two roundworms, Parascaris equorum and Parascaris univalens, recognized among equine hosts. In this study, all fifty-nine Parascaris worms were harvested from three different equine hosts (twenty specimens from Equus zebra, twenty specimens from E. caballus, and nineteen specimens from E. asinus). The ribosomal gene (ITS) and mitochondrial genes (cox1 and nadh1) were amplified to identify and genetically characterize these worms. Analysis of ITS sequences revealed five genotypes among the fifty-nine worms, and the sequence similarity among the worms from E. zebra and E. caballus was at a high level (99.87%), while the one of E. asinus worms showed an apparent difference from the worms either from the E. zebra or from the E. caballus (sequence similarity ranging from 93.04 to 93.42%). Analysis of mitochondrial genes revealed that twenty-one (cox1 gene) and thirteen (nadh1 gene) unique haplotypes were defined among the fifty-nine worms. The shared haplotypes (four cox1 haplotypes and one nadh1 haplotype) only occurred between the worm populations from E. zebra and E. caballus. The cox1 and nadh1 haplotype sequences were respectively applied to construct phylogenetic trees. Although the topologies showed that E. asinus worm population had an obvious boundary with the worm populations of the E. zebra and the E. caballus, however, no noticeable boundary was found within the two later worm populations. Meanwhile, the E. asinus worm population showed an obvious genetic differentiation and an extremely low gene flow (close to zero) with the worm populations from E. zebra and E. caballus, indicating that the genetic characteristics of the worms from the E. asinus have an obvious difference with the one from E. zebra and E. caballus.

The effects of anthropogenic landscape change on the abundance and habitat use of terrestrial large mammals of Nech Sar National Park

BackgroundLandscape change and disturbance are major challenges of wildlife management worldwide. The purpose of this study is to determine the impacts of anthropogenic landscape disturbances on the abundance and habitat use of terrestrial large mammals of Nech Sar National Park. Disturbance of natural habitats for 1985, 1995, 2005 and 2013 was analyzed using descriptive metrics of different landscapes at the class level. Population estimates of large terrestrial mammals were conducted using the line-transect method. Data were collected on the distribution and abundance of human settlement, domestic animals’ sightings and livestock Karel using field observation and Google Earth digital image.ResultThe results have shown that anthropogenic disturbances lead to changes in the size, number, distance, spatial distribution and configuration of fragments in the natural habitats between 1985 and 2013. The highest anthropogenic impacts are detected on the forest and grassland habitats through fuelwood and construction wood collection, settlement and overgrazing. Large concentrations of settlement with grass-roofed and tin-roofed houses are observed in the grassland and wooded grassland habitats. Out of the recorded 1079 houses built within the park, 867 (80.4%) were mud and wood wall with grass-roofed and 212 (19.6%) were tin-roofed houses. The ratio of tin-roofed and grass-roofed houses is 0.24:1 which suggests the permanency of human settlement and the high intensity of human impact on the wildlife. About 771 cattle Karels were recorded with the ratio of Karel to house as 0.89:1 which indicates that households have at least one Karel near to their residence. These habitat disturbances have resulted in the decline of key wildlife species in Nech Sar National Park. For instance, the population of Grant’s zebra (Equus quagga) has decreased from 6500 in 1985 to 2161 in this study based on the 2013 count. The population of Swayne’s hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus swaynei) has significantly decreased in the past decades from 40 in 1992 to 35 in 2008, to 12 in 2010, to four (4) in 2013 and locally extinct between 2017 and 2018 based on the Nech Sar National Park office information.ConclusionsHuman activities in the Nech Sar National Park are the root causes for the decline of key wildlife species particularly for the loss of Swayne’s hartebeest in the park over the past three decades. These changes are mainly related to habitat loss and habitat fragmentation due to deforestation, livestock overgrazing and residential expansion (tin-roofed, grass-roofed houses). Therefore, the main priority in Nech Sar National Park should be designing management strategies to restore the park as a fully functioning sustainable ecosystem and ensuring the social and economic sustainability of the local community. This intervention can be addressed by creating other means of livelihood, supplying alternative energy, establishing basic infrastructure and relocating the community out of the park. In this regard, a resettlement action plan should be prepared that could ensure the community will not come back to the protected area for livelihood.

Translocation a potential corridor for equine piroplasms in Cape mountain zebra (Equus zebra zebra).

Translocation of animals in fragmented habitats is an important means of dispersal and gene flow, however, the movement of animals has led to the spread of various diseases globally and wildlife are often the reservoirs of these diseases. Currently, Cape mountain zebra are translocated within South Africa as a management method for augmentation of isolated and fragmented populations. The movement of pathogens due to translocations in local regions have gone largely unchecked, particularly where there may still be isolated regions that can be negatively affected. Equine piroplasmosis is a tick-borne disease caused by Theilaria equi and/or Babesia caballi reported to occur in equids (Bhoora et al., 2010; Zweygarth et al., 2002). Here, the presence of T. equi and B. caballi was detected in 137 clinically healthy Cape mountain zebra from three South African reserves, Mountain Zebra National Park (MZNP), De Hoop Nature Reserve (DHNR) and Karoo National Park (KNP) using the multiplex EP real-time PCR (qPCR) assay. We observed 100% prevalence for T. equi and identified only one animal from MZNP with B. caballi. These results affirm that precautions should be taken prior to founding new populations of Cape mountain zebra and that potential farms and properties adjacent to prospective reserves should be screened for the presence of the organisms in order to mitigate risks of infection to domestic animals.

Hartmann’s mountain zebra resource selection and movement behavior within a large unprotected landscape in northwest Namibia

Hartmann’s mountain zebra resource selection and movement behavior within a large unprotected landscape in northwest Namibia

Vigilance Behaviour of Wild Herbivores when Foraging With or Without Livestock

In African savannas, and many other rangelands around the world, wildlife presently find themselves interacting with livestock. Many studies have been conducted on vigilance behaviour in response to presence of predators on foraging grounds, but few scientists have included the presence of livestock and how this affects vigilance when foraging together with wild herbivores. As Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) is an important example of wildlife grazing together with livestock, this phenomenon must be understood to achieve a sustainable land use management plan, particularly in Ngorongoro Conservation Area and in other protected areas. Behavioral observations of wildlife and livestock species were conducted from a vehicle driving along transects within NCA. Once a group was sighted the vehicle was stopped and sighting information recorded. Four species of wild herbivores including plains zebra (Equus burchelli), Thomson’s gazelle (Gazella thomsonii), Grant’s gazelle (Gazella granti) and Wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) were studied together with the following livestock species including cattle (Bos taurus), goats (Capra aegagrus hircus) and sheep (Ovis aries), in different seasons. 158 groups were recorded. In dry season 47 non –mixed groups (without livestock) and 30 mixed groups (with livestock) were recorded, while, during wet season 49 non -mixed groups and 32 mixed groups were recorded. Behavior was classified as feeding, grooming, laying down, ruminating, grooming, moving, and looking with head up (vigilance) with the use of the focal animal sampling method. Wildlife decreased their foraging time while they increased vigilance behavior when livestock were present; however, more studies are still for a wider conclusion.

Compared to etorphine–azaperone, the ketamine–butorphanol–medetomidine combination is also effective at immobilizing zebra (Equus zebra)

ObjectiveTo compare immobilization efficacy of a nonpotent opioid drug combination, ketamine–butorphanol–medetomidine (KBM) to the preferred etorphine–azaperone (EA) combination in zebras. Study designRandomized crossover trial. AnimalsA group of ten adult zebra (six females and four male). MethodsKBM and EA were administered once to the zebras in random order by dart, 3 weeks apart. Once a zebra was recumbent and instrumented, physiological parameters were measured and recorded at 5-minute intervals until 20 minutes. Antagonist drugs were administered at 25 minutes. KBM was antagonised using atipamezole (7.5 mg mg−1 medetomidine dose) and naltrexone (2 mg mg−1 butorphanol dose). EA was antagonized using naltrexone (20 mg mg−1 etorphine dose). Induction and recovery (following antagonist administration) times were recorded. Physiological parameters, including invasive blood pressure and blood gas analysis, were compared between combinations using a general linear mixed model. Data are reported as mean ± standard deviation or median (interquartile range). ResultsThe doses of KBM and EA administered were 3.30 ± 0.18, 0.40 ± 0.02 and 0.16 ± 0.01 mg kg−1; and 0.02 ± 0.001 and 0.20 ± 0.01 mg kg−1, respectively. KBM and EA induction times were 420 (282–564) and 240 (204–294) seconds, respectively (p = 0.03). Zebras remained recumbent throughout the study procedures. Systolic blood pressure (226 ± 42 and 167 ± 42 mmHg) and oxygen partial pressure (64 ± 12 and 47 ± 13 mmHg) were higher for KBM compared to EA (p < 0.01). Recovery time, after administering antagonists, was 92 (34–1337) and 26 (22–32) seconds for KBM and EA, respectively (p = 0.03). Conclusions and clinical relevanceCompared to EA, KBM also immobilized zebras effectively. Systemic hypertension and moderate hypoxaemia are clinical concerns of KBM and severe hypoxaemia is a concern of EA. This occurrence of hypoxaemia highlights the importance of oxygen administration during immobilization.

Gastrointestinal Amebiasis Due to Entamoeba Histolytica in a Captive Male Zebra (Equus quagga)

A 16 year-old captive male zebra (Equus quagga) at Bannerghatta Biological Park, died after seven days of initial symptoms. Symptoms included complete anorexia, severe watery diarrhoea, dehydration and colic. Faecal sample examination by direct smear method revealed the presence of Entamoeba oocysts. On post-mortem examination, petechial haemorrhages were found on serosa along with streaks and diffused haemorrhages in the mucosa of intestine, cecum and colon. The characteristic sub-mucosal haemorrhages in the glandular portion of the stomach resembling button-shaped ulcers were found embedded deep into the mucosa and no lesions in the fibrous part of the stomach. Impression smears from the glandular stomach mucosa revealed numerous trophozoites of Entamoeba histolytica.E. histolytica most commonly causes necrotising and ulcerative colitis in humans and captive non-human primates. Rare cases of gastric amebiasis also have been reported in captive horses. To the best of our knowledge, this appears to be the first report confirming E. histolytica as the cause of gastrointestinal amebiasis in a captive male zebra.

SURVEY FOR EQUINE HERPESVIRUSES IN POLAR BEARS (URSUS MARITIMUS) AND EXOTIC EQUIDS HOUSED IN US AZA INSTITUTIONS

Infection by equine herpesvirus (EHV) strains (EHV-1, EHV-9) in ursid species, including polar bears ( Ursus maritimus), has been associated with neurological disease and death. A serosurvey of captive exotic equid and polar bear populations in US Association of Zoos and Aquaria institutions was performed to determine the prevalence of EHV strains using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) tests. Equid species surveyed included zebra ( Equus spp.), Przewalski's wild horse ( Equus ferus przewalskii), Persian onager ( Equus hemionus), and Somali wild ass ( Equus africanus somaliensis). A questionnaire regarding husbandry and medical variables was distributed to institutions housing polar bears. No polar bears tested positive for EHVs on qPCR of blood or nasal swabs. No exotic equids tested positive for EHVs on qPCR of blood, but two exotic equids ( n = 2/22; 9%) tested positive for EHVs on qPCR of nasal swabs. On ELISA, polar bears infrequently were positive for EHV-1 ( n = 5/38; 13%). Exotic equids were positive for EHV-4 on ELISA more frequently ( n = 30/43; 70%) than for EHV-1 ( n = 8/43; 19%). Nine institutions submitted samples from both exotic equids and polar bears, two of which had both exotic equids and polar bears positive for EHVs by ELISA. Each of these institutions reported that the polar bear and exotic equid exhibits were within 80 m of each other and that risk factors for fomite transmission between exhibits based on husbandry practices were present. One institution that did not house exotic equids had a polar bear test positive for EHV-1 on ELISA, with no history of exposure to exotic equids. Further testing of captive polar bears and exotic equids is recommended, as is modification of husbandry practices to limit exposure of polar bears to exotic equids.

Ecosystem description and diversity of the Jurisdam–Seekoegat sections of the Mountain Zebra National Park, South Africa

The purpose of this paper is to give an ecological description of the vegetation of the Jurisdam-Seekoegat section of the Mountain Zebra National Park in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. The effect of different land use practices on the vegetation composition was also investigated. Vegetation classifications and descriptions are of immense value to scientists and land managers and provide information on the composition, structure, diversity and effect of management on the different ecosystems present. The Braun-Blanquet approach was used to classify the different plant communities, while the veld condition was determined using the Ecological Index Method. Plant community data was analysed using the JUICE software package while diversity of the different plant communities was determined using the Shannon–Wiener and Gini–Simpson Indices. From a TWINSPAN analysis eight plant communities that can be grouped into six major communities were identified. Two plant communities not previously described for the Park were identified. The different plant communities can all be related to topography and effect of previous land use. Grasses and dwarf shrubs are the most prominent species. The plant communities of the rocky midslope areas achieved the highest species richness and diversity for the study area. The areas least affected by heavy grazing had a higher veld condition score than those heavily grazed by domestic animals in the past. The results of this study also emphasises the importance of resting overgrazed veld, while it seems that heavily grazed areas will not recover without further human intervention. A vegetation map of the different plant communities was produced using ArcGIS.

Discovery of a novel species, Theileria haneyi n. sp., infective to equids, highlights exceptional genomic diversity within the genus Theileria: implications for apicomplexan parasite surveillance

A novel apicomplexan parasite was serendipitously discovered in horses at the United States – Mexico border. Phylogenetic analysis based on 18S rDNA showed the erythrocyte-infective parasite to be related to, but distinct from, Theileria spp. in Africa, the most similar taxa being Theileria spp. from waterbuck and mountain zebra. The degree of sequence variability observed at the 18S rDNA locus also suggests the likely existence of additional cryptic species. Among described species, the genome of this novel equid Theileria parasite is most similar to that of Theileria equi, also a pathogen of horses. The estimated divergence time between the new Theileria sp. and T. equi, based on genomic sequence data, is greater than 33 million years. Average protein sequence divergence between them, at 23%, is greater than that of Theileria parva and Theileria annulata proteins, which is 18%. The latter two represent highly virulent Theileria spp. of domestic cattle, as well as of African and Asian wild buffalo, respectively, which differ markedly in pathology, host cell tropism, tick vector and geographical distribution. The extent of genome-wide sequence divergence, as well as significant morphological differences, relative to T. equi justify the classification of Theileria sp. as a new taxon. Despite the overall genomic divergence, the nine member equi merozoite antigen (EMA) superfamily, previously found as a multigene family only in T. equi, is also present in the novel parasite. Practically, significant sequence divergence in antigenic loci resulted in this undescribed Theileria sp. not being detectable using currently available diagnostic tests. Discovery of this novel species infective to equids highlights exceptional diversity within the genus Theileria, a finding with serious implications for apicomplexan parasite surveillance.

Recent cheetah (acinonyx jubatus) kills as carnivore “feeding hubs”: a taphonomic study of prey size and age differences

Here we report on the taphonomy of 29 lower jaws recovered from 25 recent cheetah kill assemblages collected in the Mountain Zebra National Park (MZNP, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa). Cheetah kills commonly attract other carnivores and so serve as “feeding hubs”. As only a limited number of carnivores were present in MZNP at the time of this study, we could constrain the potential sources of taphonomic damage to cheetahs, black-backed jackals and brown hyaenas. The collected jaws derive from eight different prey species that differ in body weight as well as age (adult versus juvenile). Patterns of bone damage were examined for three different portions of the mandible: the anterior portion (incisor-diastema region), the mandible corpus and the posterior mandible (gonion, ramus, mandible condyle, coronoid process). Surface micro-damage was also scored.Statistically significant differences in the extent of taphonomic damage was found in the posterior portion of the mandible as well as the mandible corpus between large-sized prey species and medium to small-sized prey, but no differences were found in damage intensity in the anterior portion of the mandible. Surprisingly no significant age-related differences were found between adults and juveniles in the extent of mandibular damage, but sample sizes are small. Dimensions of pits, punctures and scores on all jaws studied (irrespective of species) indicate the primary activity of a small-sized canid (jackal) and/or medium-sized felid (cheetah), with secondary input of a large-sized carnivore (hyaena).Though sample sizes examined are small, this offers a promising approach for the investigation of inter-specific taphonomic signatures on prey carcasses from carnivore “feeding hubs”.

Making the most of by‐catch data: Assessing the feasibility of utilising non‐target camera trap data for occupancy modelling of a large felid

AbstractCamera traps are an increasingly used tool in ecology, having the ability to capture large numbers of photographic records in short survey periods. For many surveys, the number of non‐target records outweighs those of focal species, making them a potentially rich and often under‐utilised data source. Occupancy analysis of non‐target data represents a potential way to optimise survey output, whilst increasing “return on investment.” This study assessed the feasibility of using non‐target data from a Hartmann's mountain zebra Equus zebra hartmannae survey in Gondwana Canyon Park, southern Namibia, for occupancy analysis on leopard Panthera pardus. Using a survey design with 15 camera traps at water sources, 26 leopard events were detected over 72 days. Model fit was adequate and produced a model‐averaged occupancy of 0.64 (SE 0.36) and a detection probability of 0.24 (SE 0.07). Whilst there was a lack of precision in the final occupancy estimate, the study provided valuable pilot data for future surveys. The results highlight the ability of camera traps to obtain information‐rich datasets, which, when properly archived, can be used for providing information on a number of ecological topics, ranging far beyond that which the traps were originally deployed for.

A southern African origin and cryptic structure in the highly mobile plains zebra.

The plains zebra (Equus quagga) is an ecologically important species of the African savannah. It is also one of the most numerous and widely distributed ungulates, and six subspecies have been described based on morphological variation. However, the within-species evolutionary processes have been difficult to resolve due to its high mobility and a lack of consensus regarding the population structure. We obtained genome-wide DNA polymorphism data from more than 167,000 loci for 59 plains zebras from across the species range, encompassing all recognized extant subspecies, as well as three mountain zebras (Equus zebra) and three Grevy's zebras (Equus grevyi). Surprisingly, the population genetic structure does not mirror the morphology-based subspecies delineation, underlining the dangers of basing management units exclusively on morphological variation. We use demographic modelling to provide insights into the past phylogeography of the species. The results identify a southern African location as the most likely source region from which all extant populations expanded around 370,000 years ago. We show evidence for inclusion of the extinct and phenotypically divergent quagga (Equus quagga quagga) in the plains zebra variation and reveal that it was less divergent from the other subspecies than the northernmost (Ugandan) extant population.

Preliminary observations of the behaviour in two wild equids: Przewalski horse (Equus ferus przewalskii) and Hartmann’s zebra (Equus zebra hartmannae) kept in socially changed groups at Warsaw Zoo

Preliminary observations of the behaviour in two wild equids: Przewalski horse (Equus ferus przewalskii) and Hartmann’s zebra (Equus zebra hartmannae) kept in socially changed groups at Warsaw Zoo