Zealand Exclusive Economic Zone Research Articles

Perspectives on effects-based management of New Zealand exclusive economic zone resources

Adoption of effects-based management, environmental effects-based management (EEM) or ‘learn as we go, is essential to open up access to all of New Zealand’s Maritime Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) resource base into the future. Utilising knowledge gained from ‘learn as we go’ and combining it with the integration of sectarian agendas and establishment of a central government EEZ agency empowered by an Act of Parliament will ensure future food and energy security is met. To achieve this integration of environmental effects management with security of access and stakeholder buy in is needed. Government hierarchies should not limit integration under EEM, policy should be non-separatist, and regions should be defined using ocean zoning. Future food and energy security can then be thought of in terms of environmental carrying capacity, moving away from regimes overly focussed on regulating for development. Ocean zoning could be used to assign property rights, with all activities subject to EEM regulation and enforcement of adaptive environmental standards through a central government EEZ Ocean Affairs agency. An overarching strategy to provide a framework guiding the development of New Zealand’s EEZ organisational infrastructure and decision making is needed to achieve this.

Bait-attending fauna of the Kermadec Trench, SW Pacific Ocean: Evidence for an ecotone across the abyssal–hadal transition zone

The bait-attending fauna of the abyssal–hadal transition zone of the Kermadec Trench, SW Pacific Ocean (4329–7966 m), was investigated using a baited camera and a trap lander. The abyssal stations (4329–6007 m) revealed a typical scavenging fish community comprising macrourids and synaphobranchid eels, as well as natantian decapods. At the hadal depths of 7199 and 7561 m, the endemic liparid Notoliparis kermadecensis was observed aggregating at the bait reaching surprisingly high numbers of 5 and 13, respectively. A total of 3183 invertebrate samples were collected (mean deployment time=16 h) of which 97.8% were of the order Amphipoda (nine families, 16 species). Ten of the amphipod species represent new distributional records for the Kermadec Trench and the New Zealand Exclusive Economic Zone; this includes the shallowest known record of the endemic hadal amphipod Hirondellea dubia (6000, 6007 m). Using amphipods to statistically examine the compositional change across the abyssal–hadal boundary, an ecotone between depths <6007 and >6890 m was found, indicating that there is an ecologically distinct bait-attending fauna in this trench.

New seamount- and ridge-associated cyclostome Bryozoa from New Zealand

Recent sampling of seamount and ridge habitats in the New Zealand Exclusive Economic Zone has yielded new cyclostome bryozoan taxa. We describe here one new genus, a new name, Dartevellopora (to replace the generic homonym Dartevellia Borg, 1944) and ten new species, comprising Filicisparsa albobrunnea n. sp. (Oncousoeciidae), Discantenna tumba n. gen., n. sp. (Diastoporidae), Supercytis gracilis n. sp. (family incertae sedis), Filifascigera brevicaudex (Frondiporidae); Plagioecia parva n. sp. (Plagioeciidae), Favosipora bathyalis n. sp. (Densiporidae), and Dartevellopora neozelanica n. sp., D. rugosa n. sp., Disporella minicamera and D. minutissima n. sp. (Lichenoporidae). Seven of the new species occurred in the “Graveyard Seamount Complex” on the north-central Chatham Rise to the east of the South Island. Of these, three species and one new genus are known only from the type locality on “Graveyard” Seamount ― the most intensively fished of the seamounts in the complex by heavy bottom-trawl gear, which has implications for species conservation. Evidence based on discrimination between benthic invertebrate assemblages of hard bottoms on fished and unfished seamounts in the area suggests that small, short-lived taxa like cyclostome bryozoans might not be disadvantaged by bottom-trawling.

New Zealand’s deepwater frontier

New Zealand’s deepwater frontier

Private rights, public benefits: Industry-driven seabed protection

New Zealand has a large exclusive economic zone (EEZ) that contains a variety of marine habitats and commercially-important species. The commercial fishing industry operating within New Zealand's EEZ is of significant value to the economy and fisheries resources are managed through the extensive use of Individual Transferable Quotas (ITQs). One of the benefits of ITQs has been to better align some of the private incentives of quota owners with the public interest. These incentives contributed to an initiative proposed by the fishing industry to close large areas of New Zealand's EEZ to protect the seabed from trawling. These closed areas are termed benthic protection areas (BPAs) and protect the benthic biodiversity of about 1.1 million square kilometres of seabed—approximately 30% of New Zealand's EEZ. A significant proportion of New Zealand's known seamounts and active hydrothermal vents are protected by these closed areas. We describe and discuss the criteria used to select BPAs and some of the criticism of this marine protection initiative. We argue that the assignment of strong property rights in fishing resources was an important precondition to an industry initiative that has a significant public benefit. Where private and public interests are well aligned, government can adopt an enabling and facilitation role, ceding direct control of processes in order to get the results the align with the public interest.

New bryozoan taxa from a new marine conservation area in New Zealand, with a checklist of Bryozoa from Greater Cook Strait

Seven new species of cheilostome Bryozoa are described from the new Taputeranga Marine Reserve on the south coast of Wellington City, New Zealand. Four of them [Catenicella pseudoelegans (Catenicellidae), Celleporina wellingtonensis and Osthimosia sirena (Celleporidae), and Reteporella aurantiaca (Phidoloporidae)] were discovered during a month-long “BioBlitz” to determine aspects of the biodiversity of the Marine reserve ahead of its official gazetting and are so far known only from the marine reserve. The remaining species [Electra oligopora (Electridae), Fenestrulina littoralis (Microporellidae), and Rhynchozoon zealandicum (Phidoloporidae)] occur both in the reserve and elsewhere on the New Zealand coast and this paper resolves long-standing taxonomic problems concerning their status, each of the three having previously been attributed to other species. All seven occur in the littoral zone, some extend into deeper water, and all are apparently endemic. With the addition of the new species, the bryozoan fauna of Greater Cook Strait comprises 232 species (13 undescribed/undetermined) and, for the New Zealand Exclusive Economic Zone, 953 marine species (of which 331 remain undescribed or undetermined).

Novel methods for the design and evaluation of marine protected areas in offshore waters

AbstractThere is strong international agreement on the need for marine protected areas to reverse pervasive human impacts on the oceans' biodiversity. However, their implementation is often hampered both by legal difficulties in defining reserves in international waters and the patchy nature of data in many offshore waters. We demonstrate the use of recent advances in statistical learning and conservation prioritization to produce MPA scenarios with varying costs and benefits for New Zealand's Exclusive Economic Zone, based on the analyses of distributions of 96 demersal fish species. MPAs based on our most cost‐effective scenario would deliver conservation benefits nearly 2.5 times greater than those from equivalent‐sized areas recently implemented at the request of fishers, and at lower cost to them. Such results demonstrate the power of quantitative, knowledge‐based prioritization approaches, which can be applied at high resolution and at oceanic scales.

The Recent Pectinoidea of the New Zealand region (Mollusca: Bivalvia: Propeamussiidae, Pectinidae and Spondylidae)

The Recent Pectinoidea of the New Zealand region are reviewed. Eight new species are described from the New Zealand Exclusive Economic Zone: Parvamussium cancellorum, Cyclochlamys austrina, Cc. delli, Cc. irregularis, Cc. munida, Cc. pileolus, Cyclopecten fluctuosus, and Catillopecten tasmani. Nine species are new records for New Zealand: Parvamussium retiolum Dijkstra, 1995, Pa. vesiculatum Dijkstra, 1995, Sinepecten segonzaci Schein, 2006, Ciclopecten fluctuatus (Bavay, 1905), Pseudamussium challengeri (E.A. Smith, 1891), Spondylus occidens G.B. Sowerby III, 1903, S. proneri Lamprell Healy, 2001, S. sparsispinosus Dall, Bartsch Rehder, 1938, and S. jamarci Okutani, 1983. Cyclochlamys bacata and Cc. wanganellica are described from Wanganella Bank, West Norfolk Ridge, and Cyclopecten textus from the Lord Howe Rise. We provide new distribution records for Catillopecten murrayi (E.A. Smith, 1885), Spondylus asperrimus G.B. Sowerby II, 1847 and S. proneri in the south-west Pacific. Cyclopecten aupouria Powell, 1937 and Cp. mestayerae Dell, 1956 are newly referred to genus Cyclochlamys Finlay, 1926; Pecten challengeri E.A. Smith, 1891 is referred to Pseudamussium Mörch, 1853. Bathypecten Schein-Fatton, 1985 is newly synonymised with Catillopecten Iredale, 1939; and Chlamys consociata E.A. Smith, 1915 is newly synonymised with Talochlamys dichroa (Suter, 1909). Brooding is recorded for the first time in Cyclochlamys, and is also the first record in Propeamussiidae. Pronounced sculptural change in response to settlement of sponge on the shell is recorded in Talochlamys dichroa and Zygochlamys delicatula.

Seabird bycatch in New Zealand trawl and longline fisheries, 1998-2004

Fisheries bycatch is a threatening process for populations of procellariiform seabirds, and is of particular importance for the conservation of albatross, an especially threatened group at a global scale. There is a high level ofendemism of albatross and petrels in New Zealand waters, and around one-third of the world's species of procellariiform seabirds breed in this area. Therefore, understanding the levels of mortality of these species in the New Zealand Exclusive Economic Zone is important for global conservation of the order. For New Zealand fisheries for the 1998-2004 fishing years, we estimated total seabird bycatch using data from scientific observers with model-based estimation procedures. Although sectors of the fishing activity were not evenly covered by observers, we were able to estimate seabird bycatch for large scale fisheries by vessel size (split at 28 m length), season, area and year. Approximately 5500 seabirds (credible interval between 2000 and 10 000) are estimated to be landed in New Zealand trawl and longline fisheries annually, as a result of interactions with fishing gear. Few data were available for the small vessels, thus estimates are highly uncertain. Mortalities are likely to be most common in trawl fisheries at approximately 2000-3000 seabirds annually, with the greatest contribution coming from large vessels. Around one half of these birds were albatross. For large surface longline vessels we estimated that fewer than 500 seabirds were killed annually during the main tuna fishing season. For large demersal vessels, seabird mortality was estimated to have decreased from around 1800 seabirds in 2001 to 600 seabirds in 2004. We report observed captures by species for each fishing method and area for the fishing years 1998-2004. Thirty-one species of Procellariiformes were identified during this period, over half of which are threatened species. For some species, such as White-chinned Petrel, Procellaria aequinoctialis and White-capped Albatross, 1halassarche steadi, several hundred individuals were caught. For 15 species, fewer than 10 individuals were identified. However, the unrepresentative deployment ofobserver coverage across fishery areas makes it difficult to interpret the conservation implications of species captures. A high proportion of the petrel species was observed caught primarily from areas surrounding their breeding sites while albatross were caught across breeding and non-breeding areas. Greatly improved observer sampling ratios, and studies of population status and trends, are needed to understand the conservation implications of the effects of New Zealand trawl and longline fishing mortalities on seabird populations.

Development of a regional ocean model for New Zealand

A regional ocean model with a horizontal resolution of 1/6° encompassing the New Zealand Exclusive Economic Zone is described. The regional model successfully downscaled solutions from a high resolution, global, coupled model HadCEM. Transport estimates from the global and regional models were compared with observations, and both models supported largely consistent, climatological mean solutions. The regional model used monthly mean forcing at the surface. Nevertheless, the regional model eddy kinetic energy (EKE) spatial patterns compared favourably with long‐term mean satellite altimetric estimates, although the modelled background EKE amplitudes were much lower than observed. A series of permanent eddies associated with the western boundary current system around the top of the North Island of New Zealand were reproduced, and an eddy adjacent to Norfolk Ridge was identified in both the global and regional models. The western boundary current system around the North Island of New Zealand and the associated eddies were the most sensitive components of the model solutions, being influenced by initial conditions, wind forcing, and the model domain size.

The demise of the small fisher? A profile of exiters from the New Zealand fishery

Abstract New Zealand's exclusive economic zone encompasses a significant fishery that is managed by a market-based quota management system. Since the introduction of this regime in 1986 over 3000 fishers have exited the industry. These exiters are predominantly small-scale fishers. This study profiles a sample of the exiters, using information provided on the Ministry of Fisheries database and through a questionnaire sent to the exiters themselves. The profile includes information on the scale of exiters, their typical methods of fishing, the importance of time and exit price to the exit decision, and post-exit employment outcomes.

The Sipuncula of sublittoral New Zealand, with a key to all New Zealand species

Fourteen species of the unsegmented marine worms known as Sipuncula are reported from sublittoral waters from recent collections of 519 specimens around New Zealand. Five are new to the New Zealand Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). A taxonomic key to all 26 known New Zealand species is provided. All six families and nine of the 17 genera of Sipuncula are represented.

Genetic and morphological evidence for a single species of pink ling (Genypterus blacodes) in New Zealand waters

Two species of ling, Genypterus blacodes (Forster in Bloch & Schneider, 1801) and G. microstomus (Regan, 1903) have been recorded from New Zealand and Australian waters; a third species, G. tigerinus (Klunzinger, 1872) has been recorded from Australia. Specimens of ling collected from northern, central, and southern localities in the New Zealand Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), and specimens of G. blacodes from Australia were shown to be similar with respect to partial sequences of mitochondrial (mt)DNA, and morphometric and meristic characters. DNA sequences of part of the cytochrome b and control region showed that G. blacodes from Tasmania and New Zealand differed by 1/291 and 4/284 nucleotides respectively, but there was much greater genetic differentiation between G. blacodes and G. tigerinus (14/291 and 14/284 nucleotides), and between G. blacodes and G. capensis (23/291 and 8/284 nucleotides). MtDNA haplotypes within New Zealand show that G. blacodes is subdivided into northern and southern stocks. It is concluded that ling in New Zealand represent a single species referable to G. blacodes, and that G. microstomus Regan is a junior synonym.

Genetic and meristic variation in black and smooth oreos in the New Zealand exclusive economic zone

Meristic and genetic methods were used to determine the stock relationships of black Allocytus niger (James, Inada & Nakamura, 1988) and smooth oreo Pseudocyttus maculatus (Gilchrist, 1906) in the New Zealand Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). Samples were collected from four management areas—OEO 1 (south‐west), OEO 3A (Chatham Rise west), OEO 4 (Chatham Rise east), and OEO 6 (subantarctic) during the 1998 October‐December spawning period. Lateral line scale counts and pyloric caeca counts revealed differences between black oreo samples from OEO 6 and the other three OEO management areas. Lateral line scale counts in smooth oreo showed no significant differences between areas. Genetic analyses of four non‐coding regions of nuclear DNA and mitochondrial (mt) DNA haplotypes in black oreo showed no significant differentiation among the four management areas. Likewise for smooth oreo, genetic analyses of five non‐coding regions of nuclear DNA and mtDNA haplotypes showed no overall regional differentiation, although there was weak evidence at one locus for a difference between OEO 3A and OEO 6. The data do not reject the null hypothesis of a single genetic stock in New Zealand waters, and are typical of marine species with long pelagic juvenile stages.

New Zealand Demersal Fish Assemblages

Demersal fish assemblages in the New Zealand Exclusive Economic Zone were identified using presence–absence data from 19 215 bottom trawl tows made over a 37-year period. The dataset spanned latitudes 34–54°S and depths of 4–1500 m. A total of 123 taxa occurred in more than 1% of the tows (121 fish and 2 squid). Multivariate ordination and classification (correspondence analysis and Ward's cluster analysis) identified four primary species assemblages that were associated with the inner continental shelf, mid–outer continental shelf and shelf edge, upper continental slope and mid continental slope. The most frequently occurring species (> 40% of tows) in each assemblage were (in descending order): inshore – Chelidonichthys kumu, Pagrus auratus and Zeus faber; shelf – Nototodarus spp., Squalus acanthias and Thyrsites atun; upper slope – Macruronus novaezelandiae, Lepidorhynchus denticulatus, Genypterus blacodes and Hydrolagus sp.; mid slope – Hoplostethus atlanticus, Etmopterus baxteri, Halargyreus johnsonii, Coryphaenoides subserrulatus, Deania calcea, Coryphaenoides serrulatus, Pseudocyttus maculatus, Mora moro, Diastobranchus capensis and Centroscymnus crepidater. Further species associations were also identified within each primary assemblage. Canonical correspondence analysis revealed that most of the explainable variation in species composition was associated with depth and latitude; longitude and season explained little extra variance. The usefulness of our results is limited by the use of presence–absence rather than abundance data, and by the uneven spatial distribution of trawl tows. However, the present study provides a large-scale framework within which to interpret the results of studies using abundance data over smaller spatial and temporal scales.

DNA identification of Pacific bluefin tuna (Thunnus orientalis) in the New Zealand fishery

Muscle samples were collected from 69 specimens identified as Pacific bluefin tuna (Thunnus orientalis) (Temminck and Schlegel, 1844) in the New Zealand Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) between 1990 and 2000. Identifications before 1996 were based on body size and colour of the caudal keel; later identifications were mostly based on the shape of abdominal cavity. The tissue samples were tested with a diagnostic mitochondrial DNA marker that distinguishes southern bluefin Thunnus maccoyii (Castelnau, 1872) and Pacific bluefin tuna T. orientalis; 59 specimens were confirmed as T. orientalis and 10 as T. maccoyii. Specimens recorded as Pacific bluefin tuna by the shape of the abdominal cavity were correctly identified as T. orientalis, and this character can be used to identify large specimens landed on tuna vessels. Some specimens recorded as Pacific bluefin tuna on the basis of colour and size were T. maccoyii; and early records of T. orientalis in New Zealand waters, based on these characters, are unreliable. Unusual colour patterns were reported in some specimens of T. orientalis but not T. maccoyii. The Pacific bluefin tuna T. orientalis accounted for less than 0.3% of the bluefin tuna catch in the New Zealand EEZ during the 1990s.

Phytoplankton distributions around New Zealand derived from SeaWiFS remotely‐sensed ocean colour data

Ocean colour data from the NASA Sea‐viewing Wide Field‐of‐view Sensor (SeaWiFS) was used to estimate chlorophyll a concentration around New Zealand on a monthly basis between September 1997 and May 2000. The performance of the SeaWiFS chlorophyll a algorithm (OC4v4) was investigated by comparing in situ measurements of the underwater light field with measurements of phytoplankton pigment concentration by High Performance Liquid Chromatography. The algorithm performed well for chlorophyll a concentrations below 0.6 mg m‐3 but overestimated by a factor of two or more at higher concentrations. The average chlorophyll a concentration for New Zealand Exclusive Economic Zone was calculated as an indication of the overall productivity of the region and varied between 0.26 and 0.43 mg m‐3 with no obvious relationship to the Southern Oscillation Index. New Zealand northern subtropical and Tasman Sea waters had a classical cycle of spring and autumn chlorophyll blooms consistent with production being co‐limited by nitrate and light. Subantarctic waters had a low‐magnitude annual cycle of chlorophyll abundance that peaked in early autumn, consistent with production being predominantly limited by a combination of iron and light. Chlorophyll was generally highest in the Subtropical Front where subtropical and subantarctic waters mix. A series of persistent warm‐core eddies along New Zealand's east coast was obvious in many images, manifest as regions of low chlorophyll concentration.

Time Spent in Exclusive Economic Zones of Southern Oceans by Non-breeding Wandering Albatrosses (Diomedea spp.): Implications for National Responsibilities for Conservation

SummaryFourteen non-breeding Wandering Albatrosses of three taxa, Diomedea exulans exulans, D. e. gibsoni and D. e. antipodensis, were satellite-tracked between 1992 and 1996 in southern oceans eastwards from 30°E to 70°W for a total of 1128 days providing 3965 locations. Eight D. e. exulans were tracked from July to November around Australian waters between 110° and 160°E and spent 52–100% of their time in the Australian Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). Three subsequently moved into, and two across, the Indian Ocean. Three D. e. gibsoni were tracked in the Tasman Sea and the south-west Pacific Ocean. One tracked from September to November 1994 spent 52% of its time in the EEZs of Australia and New Zealand. Two others tracked in January and February 1995 spent 23% and 33% of their time in Australian and New Zealand EEZs in the Tasman Sea. Two of three D. e. antipodensis were tracked during 1996 in the southern Pacific Ocean from the New Zealand EEZ to the Chilean EEZ. One returned to New Zealand waters and was tracked for a total of 373 days. These three birds spent more than 54% of their tracked time in EEZs. The considerable time spent by non-breeding Wandering Albatrosses in EEZs gives host nations an opportunity to establish measures to reduce greatly their seabird bycatch losses from longline fishing. The mobility of these albatrosses between the EEZs of different nations suggests that such conservation measures could be further enhanced by nations participating in the International Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (the Bonn Convention).

Predicting rates of primary production in the vicinity of the Subtropical Convergence east of New Zealand

Water column integrated productivity of phytoplankton in three water masses east of New Zealand (Subtropical, Subtropical Convergence, and Subantarctic) varied both seasonally and spatially, ranging across two orders of magnitude. Productivity was highest in spring and autumn, and lowest in winter. Subtropical and Convergence waters were generally more productive than Subantarctic waters, but during summer the 2–3‐fold range of production was similar in each of the three water masses. Multiple regression analysis identified that most of the variability in production was associated with differences in integrated chlorophyll a concentrations (56%). By considering both surface chlorophyll a and incident irradiance we derived a relationship which explained 74% of observed spatial and seasonal variability in integrated production. These surface variables can be sensed remotely, suggesting the potential for broad spatial mapping of the seasonal cycles of production in these water masses in the New Zealand Exclusive Economic Zone (NZEEZ). Further analysis of the relationship identified that most of the remaining variability could be attributed to pb opt (a temperature‐dependent photo‐adaptive term). Exceptions to the relationship and the application of productivity models within NZEEZ are discussed.

Optical properties of the coastal and oceanic waters off South Island, New Zealand: Regional variation

Abstract A study of the optical properties of the varied water masses in inshore and oceanic waters around the South Island of New Zealand was made. This was a contribution to a larger effort to model the productivity of the southern sector of New Zealand's Exclusive Economic Zone. A combination of spectroradiometry, PAR sensor deployments, transmissometry, and yellow‐substance measurement was used at 30 stations to characterise the optical properties of the region. The waters were classified according to Jerlov's system for ocean waters. Inshore sites on the west and east coasts and Foveaux Strait fell into optical types Coastal I and Oceanic III. Oceanic II waters occurred in the Subtropical Convergence Zone (STCZ). Subantarctic waters and those south of the STCZ were in the clear categories Oceanic I and IB. Attenuation coefficients (K) varied more than three‐fold from 0.05 to 0.16 m−1. Reflectance was lowest off the Fiordland coast where light‐absorbing yellow substance was maximal. An index of the average lighting of the mixed layer (Eo ) for phytoplankton photosynthesis was calculated from the light‐depth profile. Highly varying mixed‐layer depths, combined with a 3‐fold difference in K, caused Eo to vary by as much as 11, suggesting that the growth of oceanic phytoplankton in the region may vary far more than predicted by present models.