Zealand Cities Research Articles

Potential public health benefits from eradicating rats in New Zealand cities and a tentative research agenda

ABSTRACTThe eradication of some introduced pests such as rats, stoats and possums in New Zealand seems increasingly feasible with successful action to date in various cities (e.g. Wellington City) and with the government’s national 2050 predator-free goal. Here we specifically detail the potential benefits of urban rat eradication and find these cover a wide range of topics including a potentially reduced risk of infection from at least seven zoonotic diseases (e.g. leptospirosis, toxoplasmosis, trichinellosis, murine typhus; and three enteric diseases). Other potential benefits include: psychological benefits from increased native bird life in cities; reduced damage to food supplies; reduced rat damage to building insulation and to building walls and roofing; and reduced fires in buildings associated with rat damage. However, there is considerable uncertainty on the size of such impacts and so we outline a tentative research agenda as a first step towards quantification of the likely key public health benefits of rat eradication.

A tale of two New Zealand cities: Cycling to school among adolescents in Christchurch and Dunedin

This study examined intrapersonal factors related to cycling to school among adolescents in two New Zealand cities based on the Theory of Planned Behaviour and the Prototype Willingness Model. Data were collected from 803 adolescents (Christchurch: n=373, Dunedin: n=430; age 13–18years; living ≤4km from school; non-boarders). Despite similar attitudes towards cycling to school, Dunedin adolescents had lower prevalence of cycling to school (2% versus 19% in Christchurch) and also scored lower for all measures of injunctive norm, descriptive norm, self-perceived cycling capability and autonomy, and behavioural intention with respect to cycling to school compared to their Christchurch counterparts. The dominant influence on the intention to cycle to school was subjective norm in Christchurch and attitude in Dunedin. Future initiatives for encouraging adolescents to cycle to school should consider the contributions of intrapersonal factors, the social needs of adolescents, and the need to increase adolescents’ cycle skills.

Benchmarking Cycling and Walking in Six New Zealand Cities: Pilot Study 2015

Benchmarking cities to compare active transport is established internationally, with varying approaches used. It can be a useful tool for planners, policy makers, advocates and researchers to determine how well cities are doing at promoting active transport, making it safe for people and reaping the environmental, health and economic rewards of this approach. New Zealand is a car-dominated society with high per-capita carbon emissions. While there has been a recent, modest, policy push to develop urban cycling, overall the policy environment remains unsupportive of active travel. Despite this, there are well-known differences between New Zealand cities in active transport patterns, although this has never been looked at systematically. We undertook a project to benchmark cycling and walking in the six largest New Zealand cities (Auckland, Tauranga, Hamilton, Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin). This work used (with permission) the same format as the successful Alliance for Biking and Walking biennial Benchmarking report in the United States, but was modified to the New Zealand context. Using existing data sources and new survey data we reported on an extensive array of inputs (for example policies, extent of infrastructure, level of investment, programmes and personnel) and outcomes (including levels of cycling and walking, health outcomes such as physical activity, obesity, and safety for cyclists and pedestrians). Where possible we also reported gender, ethnic and socio-economic differences in outcomes. In this presentation we discuss some of the key findings- the full report is published here: http://sustainablecities.org.nz/resilient-urban-futures/benchmarking/ . We will also discuss some of the lessons learned from this first attempt at Benchmarking. These include issues with engaging local government, dealing with discrepancies in geographic boundaries, limitations of routinely collected datasets, a lack of shared understanding of infrastructure, the funding and sustainability of benchmarking, and who should undertake benchmarking. Benchmarking cities can potentially be a powerful tool to encourage active transport, this preliminary experience in New Zealand contains useful lessons for other researchers or practitioners interested in this approach.

Towards zero carbon? Constrained policy action in two New Zealand cities

ABSTRACTTransportation was Aotearoa/New Zealand’s fastest-growing sector in terms of carbon emissions over the last two decades. This article investigates mitigation policies for transportation emissions in the two most prosperous cities, Wellington and Auckland. Analysing local government policy documents, we dissect commitments and examine the gap between aspirations and outcomes. Neither city’s emissions are falling significantly despite trends towards housing intensification, which can cut emissions via shorter journeys. The mode share of motor vehicles in total commuting trips is only gradually diminishing, while the share of walking and cycling is only marginally increasing. We explore possible explanations for the slow progress in achieving aspirations. Our main findings are: first, there is a significant ambition gap between councils’ stated goals, on the one hand, and measures adopted by councils, on the other; and second, ‘business as usual’ policies of central government are dampening these cities’ will and ability to adopt more sustainable policies. We conclude that city mitigation performance will likely be modest until the central government’s stance changes, but there is nevertheless a strong case, and clear opportunities, for Auckland and Wellington to strengthen their emission reductions.

Informing Design Review: Discussion of the Findings of a Visual Preference Study in New Zealand

The appearance of the built environment plays an important role in people's physical, financial and psychological wellbeing. In light of this, it is important to ensure that transformation of urban streets and public spaces through individual projects can satisfy the aesthetic needs of those who regularly use them. Within projects, outcomes are regularly controlled by a steering group working on behalf of the project sponsor and other internal stakeholders. To ensure that the needs of those outside the project group are also met, some local authorities in New Zealand review project design at the planning approval stage. This process invites experts, who in some cases informed by design guides, to evaluate the architectural design. This paper addresses the question of whether the ways places are changing align with public expectations. A mixed methods approach was used to elicit people's preferences for building and streetscape characteristics, where stimuli were first presented as photographic representations and secondly as real streetscapes in two New Zealand cities. The findings identify the streetscape design characteristics that were best liked by people as well as those that were disliked. Of particular interest was a comparison between the preferences expressed by lay members of the public with those of design and planning professionals. The paper concludes with a brief discussion about the obstacles that may be limiting the achievement of well-liked streetscapes in the New Zealand context.

The importance of urban gardens in supporting children's biophilia

Exposure to and connection with nature is increasingly recognized as providing significant well-being benefits for adults and children. Increasing numbers of children growing up in urban areas need access to nature to experience these benefits and develop a nature connection. Under the biophilia hypothesis, children should innately affiliate to nature. We investigated children's independent selection of spaces in their neighborhoods in relation to the biodiversity values of those spaces, in three New Zealand cities, using resource-selection analysis. Children did not preferentially use the more biodiverse areas in their neighborhoods. Private gardens and yards were the most preferred space, with the quality of these spaces the most important factor defining children's exposure to nature. Children's reliance on gardens and yards for nature experiences raises concerns for their development of a nature connection, given disparities in biodiversity values of private gardens in relation to socioeconomic status, and the decline in sizes of private gardens in newer urban developments.

Pride and the city

Pride in one’s city is an individual, and collective as well as institutional response to urban conditions which may be harnessed in support of expanding urban facilities and services. Pride is likely to be felt most keenly by those who have a stake in the city and for this reason anecdotal reporting of urban pride in the media is subject to likely bias in favour of vested interests. In practice however we know very little about urban pride. The vast literature on urbanism does not appear to have identified any role for urban pride let alone indicating which cities gather pride or who among its inhabitants exhibit such prideThis paper applies a multi-level statistical model to large random sample of residents in twelve New Zealand cities. From the results we learn that, although financial stake holding is relevant, urban pride is concentrated more broadly among those whose social and cultural identity is closely tied to the city. Where financial stake holding is most influential is when it is absent, for those experiencing financial difficulties are the most likely to disavow urban pride. Urban pride is a therefore a distributional property of cities in which the currencies are emotional and cultural as well as financial. Urban pride is relatively absent among those who fail to have a stake in the city as well as being weaker among those who live in relatively unattractive cities, and less attractive neighbourhoods. As a barometer of rewards to living and investing in the city, urban pride certainly warrants closer attention than it has received to date.

Quality in residential care: exploring residents’, family members’, managers’ and staff perspectives

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explore the indicators of quality in care for people working and living in aged residential care (ARC) settings. Design/methodology/approach This research was conducted using an ethnographic design in two distinct ARC facilities in a New Zealand city, a large facility with residential, dementia and hospital level care, and a small family owned facility providing residential care only. In total, 50 hours of observational data were collected, and semi-structured interviews were conducted with 21 people, including managers, careworkers, nurses, family members and residents. These data were thematically analysed using the constant comparative method. Findings The main indicators of quality for staff, family and residents included: a home-like, friendly and safe environment; good medical and personal care; respect for the residents; and good staff. Participants also acknowledged the need for adjustments by residents to living in aged care; and the challenges of caring for increasingly frail residents. Originality/value Findings support the growing recognition of a need for resident-centred approaches to ARC that are reflected in government policy and regulatory apparatus. Managers in ARC facilities must balance adherence with health and safety standards, and providing an environment where their residents can enjoy a meaningful life that has purpose and value.

‘I am sorry it is not more, but it is all I could earn’: Presbyterian Children, Christmas and Charity in Colonial New Zealand, c.1909-1945

In February 1884 the Presbyterian mission ship The Dayspring departed the southern New Zealand city of Dunedin, en route back to the New Hebrides [Vanuatu] via Sydney, after completing a tour of the colony’s main centres. The Otago Daily Times reporter observed that in Dunedin the ship was visited by ‘close on 14,000 persons – children and adults’, with another ‘600 children’ as visitors prior to its departure from nearby Port Chalmers. The children inspected ‘various curios’ in the cabins and at least saw, if not interacted with, five ‘natives’ on board. These four men and one woman, from the New Hebrides, had ‘shown themselves to be possessed of much intelligence and observation’ who, through ‘missionary labour and Christian instruction’, had been ‘transformed from savage cannibals into peaceful, gentle Christians’ (‘The Dayspring’ 1884, p. 2).

Panel connection details in existing New Zealand precast concrete buildings

Following the 2010/2011 Canterbury earthquakes the seismic design of buildings with precast concrete panels has received significant attention. Although this form of construction generally performed adequately in Christchurch, there were a considerable number of precast concrete panel connection failures. This observation prompted a review of more than 4700 panel details from 108 buildings to establish representative details used in both existing and new multi-storey and low rise industrial precast concrete buildings in three major New Zealand cities of Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch. Details were collected from precast manufacturers and city councils and were categorised according to type. The detailing and quantity of each reviewed connection type in the sampled data is reported, and advantages and potential deficiencies of each connection type are discussed. The results of this survey provide a better understanding of the relative prevalence of common detailing used in precast concrete panels and guidance for the design of future experimental studies.

Will Marley come home? An exploration of the impacts of the Canterbury earthquakes on people’s relationships with their companion animals

A sizeable number of New Zealand homes contain at least one companion animal – and many of these are afforded the status of family member by their human owner(s). It follows then that when a series of high-magnitude earthquakes shook the New Zealand city of Christchurch and the Canterbury region it is located within, many people and their companion animals were impacted. Generic and disaster-specific research into animal-human relationships has mostly been undertaken outside of the profession of social work. However, a number of recent social work research and theoretical papers draw attention to the need for this discipline to also embrace this field (Evans & Gray, 2012; Morley & Fook, 2005; Tedeschi, Fitchett, & Molidor, 2005; Risley-Curtiss, Holley, & Wolf, 2006b; Risley-Curtiss, 2010). The aftermath of the Canterbury earthquakes has revealed a need to look critically at how animal-human relationships are perceived, and the potential for these relationships to be considered within routine social work assessments and interventions. This paper considers the role of companion animals in people’s lives, addresses the status of these animals during the Canterbury earthquakes, explores issues of loss and resiliency within animal-human relationships and looks at the implications of these relationships for social work practice and research.

Associations Between the Neighborhood Environment and Moderate-to-Vigorous Walking in New Zealand Children: Findings from the URBAN Study.

Urban design may affect children's habitual physical activity by influencing active commuting and neighborhood play. Our objective was to examine associations between neighborhood built-environment features near children's homes and objectively measured physical activity. We used geographical information system (GIS) protocols to select 2016 households from 48 low- and high-walkability neighborhoods within four New Zealand cities. Children (n=227; mean age±standard deviation [SD] 9.3±2.1years) from the selected households wore accelerometers that recorded physical activity in the period 2008-2010. We used multilevel linear models to examine the associations of GIS and street-audit measures, using the systematic pedestrian and cycling environmental scan (SPACES), of the residential environment (ranked into tertiles) on children's hourly step counts and proportions of time spent at moderate-to-vigorous intensity on school and non-school days. During school-travel times (8:00-8:59 a.m. and 15:00-15:59 p.m.), children in the mid-tertile distance from school (~1 to 2km) were more active than children with shorter or longer commute distances (1290 vs. 1130 and 1140 steps·h(-1); true between-child SD 440). After school (16:00-17:59 p.m.), children residing closest to school were more active (890 vs. 800 and 790 steps·h(-1); SD 310). Neighborhoods with more green space, attractive streets, or low-walkability streets showed a moderate positive association on non-school day moderate-to-vigorous steps, whereas neighborhoods with additional pedestrian infrastructure or more food outlets showed moderate negative associations. Other associations of residential neighborhoods were unclear but, at most, small. Designing the urban environment to promote safe child-pedestrian roaming may increase children's moderate-to-vigorous physical activity.

Spatial and temporal variation in the association between temperature and salmonellosis in NZ

Objective:Modelling the relationship between weather, climate and infectious diseases can help identify high‐risk periods and provide understanding of the determinants of longer‐term trends. We provide a detailed examination of the non‐linear and delayed association between temperature and salmonellosis in three New Zealand cities (Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch). Methods:Salmonella notifications were geocoded to the city of residence for the reported case. City‐specific associations between weekly maximum temperature and the onset date for reported salmonella infections (1997–2007) were modelled using non‐linear distributed lag models, while controlling for season and long‐term trends. Results:Relatively high temperatures were positively associated with infection risk in Auckland (n=3,073) and Christchurch (n=880), although the former showed evidence of a more immediate relationship with exposure to high temperatures. There was no significant association between temperature and salmonellosis risk in Wellington. Conclusions:Projected increases in temperature with climate change may have localised health impacts, suggesting that preventative measures will need to be region‐specific. This evidence contributes to the increasing concern over the public health impacts of climate change.

A novel method for fine-scale biodiversity assessment and prediction across diverse urban landscapes reveals social deprivation-related inequalities in private, not public spaces

The value of urban biodiversity is increasingly emphasised from both social and ecological perspectives, as biodiversity has been linked to providing multiple benefits ranging from supporting city sustainability to enhancing the health and well-being of individual residents. At present many urban studies lack integrated methods of assessing urban biodiversity that would allow the capture of both social and ecological values of green space and enable better management and planning for urban biodiversity. Here we introduce a method of scoring urban habitats at a fine scale, which measures habitat attributes that act as biodiversity indicators common to both social and ecological fields. This provides a single, comparable score that represents the capacity of habitats to support biodiversity and people’s connection to that biodiversity. Our results show a clear ranking of urban spaces from those characterised as being wilder and greener, to those dominated by paved surfaces that are more highly managed. We applied this scoring approach to predict and compare biodiversity across neighbourhoods in three New Zealand cities. We found biodiversity across neighbourhoods was significantly related to socioeconomic class, due mainly to the greater cover of mature gardens of high biodiversity value in regions of higher socio-economic status. As such, while all neighbourhoods provided opportunities for residents to connect to nature through public green space, those people living in more deprived neighbourhoods are less likely to be exposed to nearby biodiverse spaces, and therefore may encounter fewer opportunities to connect to nature and gain the benefits which urban biodiversity can afford.

Are two earthquakes better than one? How earthquakes in two different regions affect risk judgments and preparation in three locations

Research has shown that experiencing a single disaster influences people's risk judgments about the hazard, but few studies have studied how multiple disasters in different locations affect risk judgments. Following two earthquake sequences in two different regions (Christchurch, Cook Strait), this study examined earthquake risk judgments, non-fatalism and preparation in two New Zealand cities that were near to one of those sequences (Christchurch in Canterbury, Wellington near Cook Strait) and in one city that was distant from both events (Palmerston North). Judgments of earthquake likelihood were higher after the Cook Strait earthquakes than before in Christchurch and the rest of New Zealand, but not in Wellington, where the baseline risk was high. However, participants in all cities saw the risk as more real, plausible, and important after these earthquakes, particularly in Wellington. Preparations following the earthquakes were also higher in Wellington and Christchurch (where non-fatalism was highest) than in Palmerston North. Causal attributions for (not) preparing differed across the three cities, as did non-fatalism. These findings suggest that the Christchurch and Cook Strait earthquakes had a combined effect on citizens' perception of the risk, particularly in Wellington. Such events create a valuable window of opportunity for agencies wishing to enhance preparedness.

Changes in intra-city employment patterns: a spatial analysis

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate area-level labour market dynamics from a spatial perspective. This analysis is aimed at better understanding what socio-economic actors are associated with shifts in unemployment rates across a major metropolitan city. Design/methodology/approach – Based on two waves of New Zealand census data, this paper combines a seemingly unrelated regression approach (allowing for relaxation of the assumption that residuals from models of different employment states are unrelated) with a spatial lag model. Findings – The key socio-economic drivers associated with intra-city employment dynamics were vehicle access, dependency rates and educational attainment. Importantly, the identification of spatial autocorrelation with respect to employment status patterns within this major New Zealand city motivates a case for heterogeneous employment policies across the city. Originality/value – This research improves the understanding of changes in labour market status rates within a city region. This is done by inclusion of two important considerations: a spatial perspective to labour market dynamics at an intra-city level; and formally modelling the interdependence across the four potential labour market outcomes (being full-time, part-time, unemployed or out of the labour force). Overall, there was clear empirical support for the need to include spatial considerations when using targeted policy to help lift areas out of unemployment.

Using a ‘Scenario Development’ Delphi to Understand the Complexities of Work in the Future

This paper develops and reflects upon a method designed to engage multiple voices in understanding the complexities of work in the future. Living in a small New Zealand city undergoing a downturn, ...

Could strength of exposure to the residential neighbourhood modify associations between walkability and physical activity?

The importance of neighbourhoods for health and wellbeing may vary according to an individual's reliance on their local resources, but this assertion is rarely tested. We investigate whether greater neighbourhood ‘exposure’ through reliance on or engagement with the residential setting magnifies neighbourhood-health associations. MethodsThree built environment characteristics (destination density, streetscape (attractiveness of built environment) and street connectivity) and two physical activity components (weekday and weekend accelerometer counts) were measured for 2033 residents living in 48 neighbourhoods within four New Zealand cities in 2009–2010, giving six different built environment–physical activity associations. Interactions for each built environment–physical activity association with four individual-level characteristics (acting as proxies for exposure: gender, working status, car access, and income) were assessed with multi-level regression models; a total of 24 ‘tests’. ResultsOf the 12 weekday built environment–physical activity tests, 5 interaction terms were significant (p < 0.05) in the expected direction (e.g. stronger streetscape–physical activity among those with restricted car access). For weekend tests, one association was statistically significant. No significant tests were contradictory. Pooled across the 12 weekday physical activity ‘tests’, a 1 standard deviation increase in the walkability of the built environment was associated with an overall 3.8% (95% CI: 3.6%–4.1%) greater increase in weekday physical activity across all the types of people we hypothesised to spend more time in their residential neighbourhood, and for weekend physical activity it was 4.2% (95% CI 3.9%–4.5%). ConclusionsUsing multiple evaluation methods, interactions were in line with our hypothesis, with a stronger association seen for proxy exposure indicators (for example, restricted car access). Added to the wider evidence base, our study strengthens causal evidence of an effect of the built environment on physical activity, and highlights that health gains from improvements of the residential neighbourhood may be greater for some people.

Balancing Sodium and Potassium: Estimates of Intake in a New Zealand Adult Population Sample.

Dietary intakes of sodium and potassium are important determinants of blood pressure. We assessed sodium and potassium intake in a cross-sectional survey which included a random sample of New Zealand Adults aged 18 to 64 years from two New Zealand cities: Dunedin and Wellington. Participants completed a short questionnaire, had height, weight and blood pressure measured, and collected a 24 h urine sample. Mean 24 h sodium excretion was 3386 mg/day (95% CI 3221, 3551): 3865 mg/day for men and for 2934 mg/day women. Mean 24 h potassium excretion was 2738 mg/day (95% CI 2623, 2855): 3031 mg/day for men and 2436 mg/day for women. Mean sodium:potassium ratio was 1.32 (95% CI 1.26, 1.39); 1.39 for men and 1.26 for women. Sodium intake was higher among younger people, men, those with a higher BMI and higher potassium excretion. Potassium excretion was higher among older people, men and those with a higher sodium excretion. New Zealand adults have high sodium intakes and low potassium intakes compared to recommended levels. This is likely to adversely affect population blood pressure levels as well as incidence of cardiovascular disease. A comprehensive public health programme to reduce dietary sodium intake and increase intake of fruit and vegetables is warranted.

Particulate matter sources and long-term trends in a small New Zealand city

Particulate matter samples (PM10 and PM2.5) in downtown Nelson, New Zealand were collected from 2006 to 2012. These samples were used to investigate sources of PM10 and PM2.5, and to evaluate long-term trends in PM10 and BC concentrations. Five PM10 and PM2.5 sources were identified using positive matrix factorization: biomass combustion, motor vehicles, secondary sulfate, marine aerosol and soil. Overall, biomass combustion was the dominant contributor to PM10 (48%) and PM2.5 (77%) mass. The biomass combustion factor profile featured arsenic, suggesting that locals were burning copper chrome arsenate-treated timber, an activity that appears to occur throughout New Zealand.Trend analyses on PM10 and black carbon concentrations revealed that both were decreasing year-on-year, at an average rate of 0.5 μg m−3 per year and 100 ng m−3 per year, respectively. This study provides important information for Nelson City Council, who are responsible for managing air quality in Nelson, to effectively manage air quality. This study also shows that relatively simple mitigation measures can instigate decreases in PM and BC concentrations.