Yuan Dynasty Research Articles

Fragments of the Northern Routes: The Trade in Chinese Ceramics in the Golden Horde Territories

Abstract The role of Chinese ceramics in the interconnections of the Mongol khanates is not a new subject; however, most studies focus on the artistic exchanges between Yuan China and Ilkhanid Iran. Besides the well-known southern mainland route that linked these two regions, written sources and archaeological evidence also bear witness to intense commercial activity along the northern routes that passed over the Caspian Sea to the Caucasian region, relaying between the major cities of the Golden Horde khanate. The Chinese stoneware and porcelain excavated in some of these cities, including Saray, Saraijuk, Azov, Majar, and Bolgar, have been published among other materials in various excavations reports and articles covering these regions, but have never been considered as a whole. This article aims to provide an initial survey on the presence of fourteenth-century Chinese ceramics in the Golden Horde khanate, draw a preliminary picture of the typologies of the exported wares, and set the basis for further studies in the field.

Addressing Issues Related to International Students' Chinese Cultural Cognition, Learning Interest and Cross-Cultural Adaptation by Developing Chinese Traditional Music Module in Higher Vocational Colleges of China

The increasing number of international students is not only conducive to promoting the international development of Chinese higher vocational education, but also brings greater challenges in terms of education of international students. According to the main problems international students encountered in Chinese higher vocational colleges, this study developed the Chinese traditional music module to enhance Chinese culture cognition, learning interest and cross-cultural adaptation of international students. Five kinds of music training were applied in developed module including listening training, dancing training, spoken word training, rhythm training, and improvisation training. Teaching content of developed module contained Chinese music from 960 to1912 in Song Dynasty, Yuan Dynasty, Ming Dynasty and Qing Dynasty. The developed Chinese traditional music module was discussed in detail. Five kinds of music training combined with Chinese cultural stories behind music have improved the teaching effectiveness of module. Cultural education is of great significance for the development of international education.

DIPLOMATIC DEXTERITY: MONGOL QAGHANS OF THE YUAN DYNASTY AND THE QUEST FOR EAST ASIAN HEGEMONY

This study examines the foreign policy and diplomacy pursued by the Mongol Khans during the Yuan Dynasty (1268-1369), who held the titles of both Mongol qaghan and Chinese Emperor. Specifically, Qubilai Qaghan, who received the title of Khan at a qurultai held in the city of Shangdu, located in present-day Beijing, rather than the Orkhon region traditionally used for convening qurultais, and without the participation of all Mongol nobles, had to establish his legitimacy throughout his life both among the Mongols and the people he conquered in Asia. For this purpose, he utilized diplomacy and foreign policy as much as conquests. Within the scope of this study, the rhetoric and legitimacy foundations used in diplomacy are examined, taking into account not only the Goryeo kingdom in Korea, which became a vassal of the Mongol Empire but also regional states such as Japan, which did not acknowledge Mongol superiority and dominion, as well as diplomacy conducted with states in Southeast Asia and Europe. During this period, the Yuan Dynasty successfully blended elements of legitimacy belonging to China with those from the Turkic-Mongol tradition in its foreign policy, thereby leaving a lasting diplomatic legacy, especially in East Asia.

“Formula of Water” in the Iconography of Landscape Painting in Medieval China

The theme of the sea in traditional Chinese painting is associated with the last decades of the development of the country’s artistic life, in particular with painting on the theme of the sea and ocean. The aim of the study is to determine the peculiarities of the embodiment of the image of the sea element in Chinese painting of the Middle Ages as a basis for the development of the marina genre in modern art. In the works of masters of the Song (960—1279), Yuan (1271—1368) and Ming (1368—1644) dynasties one can notice the repetition and interpretation of those “formulas” used by painters in medieval China. Such “formulas” are the established ways of depicting water surfaces with pen and ink, formed during the Song dynasty and developed in the Yuan and Ming eras until the seventeenth century. Particular emphasis is placed on the systematization of schemes for the embodiment of the sea in different states in Ma Yuan’s work, their sources, and how they were embodied and transformed by painters in subsequent periods. The use of schemes for depicting water made it possible to achieve the effect of dynamism. This was conditioned, among other things, by the specificity of artistic tools and materials used by masters, who had in their arsenal scarce artistic means. The artists endeavoured to invent and form their own method of execution for each theme. The article has theoretical and practical value. It supplements the history of the development of landscape painting in ancient China by analysing the origin and formation of the previously little-studied motif, which in the space of Chinese painting of the 20th — 21st centuries has taken a strong position.

The Epitome of Ethnic Integration: The Formation and Development of Hui Nationality

In this paper, the origin of the Hui people in China is researched, the formation history of the Hui people is stated in detail, the development and evolution of the Hui people are described in detail, and the origin, formation, development and evolution history of the Hui people are divided into six stages, and the characteristics of each stage are analyzed in detail. It is pointed out that the origin of Hui nationality originates from the opening of China’s Silk Road, the needs of Sino-foreign economic and trade development, and China’s political integrity, economic prosperity, cultural prosperity, national prosperity and people’s security are closely related. The formation of Hui in China has the great attraction of Sui, Tang and Song dynasties, and is closely related to the expansion, wars and killings of Islam in the Arab Empire and the plunder, capture and recruitment of soldiers in the Mongolian and Yuan Dynasties. The formation of the Hui people and the essence of its development and growth are the fundamental way for the eastern Muslims to settle and grow in China and absorb the blood of Han Chinese, Mongolians, Uyghurs, Jews and other ethnic groups.

Scientific and simulation study of the manufacturing technology of the ancient Chinese rare Hare’s Fur glazed bowl

The red Hare’s Fur glazed bowls of the Jin and Yuan periods(1115–1368 A.D.) were analysed by optical microscopy, EDXRF, XRD, SEM-EDS, Micro-Raman spectroscopy and thermal expansion instrument. We also conduct simulation experiments at different temperatures and atmospheres. The results revealed that the Fe2O3 content of the Hare’s Fur glaze was about 5%. ε-Fe2O3 was found in the crystals on the glaze surface. The ε-Fe2O3 was all found on the rim of the bowl and it can exceed 10 µm in size. They were fired at about 1250 °C in a reducing atmosphere. The simulation experiments showed that ε-Fe2O3 was formed in the cooling stage and needed to be held for a period of time at about 1160–1190 °C. The presence of mullite will promote the formation of ε-Fe2O3. This is because the Al-substitution effect changes the crystal structure of ε-Fe2O3 and makes it more stable.

Manufacturing technique for Jizhou painted porcelains in the Yuan dynasty and its influence on coloring

The Jizhou kiln was an important production center of the painted porcelains in Southern China during the Song and Yuan dynasties. The manufacturing technique of the painted porcelains in the Jizhou kiln potentially facilitated the emergence of the well-known blue-and-white porcelains in Jingdezhen. Herein, the chemical compositions and microstructures of the bodies, glazes and paintings of Jizhou painted porcelains from the Yuan dynasty were investigated through X-ray fluorescence (XRF), optical microscopy (OM), Raman spectroscopy and field emission scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM‒EDS) to clarify the manufacturing characteristics of Jizhou painted porcelains and their impact on the coloring mechanism. The results showed that the bodies of Jizhou painted porcelains were made of local clay and those transparent glazes were made of local sericite-rich clay and botanic ashes. Black‒brown painted porcelains and red‒brown painted porcelains were methodically made by ancient potters by controlling pigment formulation, painting techniques and firing schedules. The colors of the black‒brown painting and the red‒brown painting were related to the α-Fe2O3 particles in the iron-rich minerals used in the pigment and the iron oxide crystals (α-Fe2O3 and ε-Fe2O3) precipitated on the glaze surface, respectively.

Systematic Investigation into Evolution of Materials and Techniques Used in Lacquer Lian from the Warring States Period to the Yuan Dynasty

In order to investigate the evolution of Chinese lacquering techniques, seven pieces of lacquer Lian from the Warring States Period to the Yuan Dynasty (475 BC–1368 AD) were analyzed by means of cross-section observation, Raman spectroscopy (RS), and thermally assisted hydrolysis and methylation pyrolysis coupled with gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy (Py-GC/MS). The results revealed that the lacquer Lian consisted of a three-layer structure, encompassing a pigment layer on the surface, an undercoat layer in the middle, and a ground layer. The red mineral pigment utilized was cinnabar, while a combination of Chinese lacquer and drying oil served as the primary organic material. Although lacquering techniques had undergone minimal changes from the Warring States Period to the Yuan Dynasty, the species of drying oil had changed, based on the fact that boiled tung oil was found in the ground layer of lacquerware from the Song Dynasty and the Yuan Dynasty. The present research provides direct evidence for the inheritance and development of Chinese lacquer technology.

Analysis of the relationship between the temporal and spatial evolution of henan grotto temples and their geographical and cultural environment based on GIS

Grotto temples in Henan Province, which began in the Northern Wei Dynasty and ended in the Republic of China, have been excavated and repaired to varying degrees in the Sui, Tang, Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties. In this study, 119 grotto temples sited in Henan Province were considered as the research object, and the spatial and temporal distribution of grotto temples in Henan Province is analyzed by using the method of quantitative geographic analysis and ArcGIS 10.5 software. The analysis results indicate that the grrotto temples (including cliff statues) in Henan Province tend to have a cohesive distribution, with uneven regional distribution, mainly concentrated in the western and northern regions of Henan. The distribution direction and center of the grotto temples (including cliff statues) did not change much during the Northern Dynasties, Sui and Tang dynasties, and Song and Yuan dynasties, mainly distributing in the northwest of Henan. However, the situation underwent significant changes and began to migrate to south of Henan, reflecting the changes the changes in the political and cultural center at that time. The spatiotemporal distribution of the cave temples (including cliff statues) was based on the related topography, river systems, stratigraphic lithology, road traffic, and was direct or indirect influenced by the authorities as well.

Research on the historical evolution of urban street morphology under the background of big data and Internet of Things

With the advent of the era of Industry 4.0, big data and the Internet of Things came into being. The rise of big data and the Internet of Things has had an impact on all walks of life. The development of big data and the Internet of Things provides an opportunity for the evolution of street form. With the rapid development of smart cities, the street shape is also changing more and more towards the direction of intelligence. Taking Chunxi Road in Chengdu as an example, this paper studies the generation mechanism of street morphology. The factors influencing the generation of street form are divided into two categories: (1) legal factors. (2) Architectural design factors. By building a model, the article quantitatively analyzes the impact of these two types of factors on street form. At the same time, the article conducts an in-depth study on the evolution of ancient Chinese street morphology. The ancient Chinese street form is divided into four stages, namely the Tang and Song Dynasties, the Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties, the Late Qing Dynasty, and the founding of New China. The influencing factors of street shape are divided into four categories, namely, the influence of commodity economy, the influence of foreign culture, the influence of building materials, and the influence of traffic. This paper elaborates the influence mechanism of these four factors on the street form in China. The article finally puts forward the development trend of my country’s future street form, and points out that the evolution of my country’s street form will develop in the direction of intelligence, and intelligent transportation, intelligent garbage classification system, etc. will be applied. The number of brick-and-mortar stores in my country’s street layout may decrease.

Chemical Compositions of Chinese Glazed Tiles from an Imperial Mausoleum of the Liao Dynasty

Glazed tiles are characteristic architectural ceramics traditionally used in ancient Chinese royal buildings. Studies on their chemical compositions have provided valuable information regarding their compositional classifications and the provenances of their raw materials. Existing studies have mainly focused on the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368 AD) or later. Research on earlier ages is limited because of a lack of samples. In this study, we used an energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometer to analyze the chemical compositions of 18 glazed tiles unearthed from an imperial mausoleum (the Xinli site) from the Liao dynasty (969–982 AD). The glazes of the tiles had a SiO2–Al2O3–PbO ternary oxidic system and the bodies of the tiles had a SiO2–Al2O3 binary oxidic system. Certain compositional differences were observed among the samples with different types of decorations. Compared with samples from the Yuan dynasty and later periods, the Xinli samples had higher SiO2 and Al2O3 contents and lower PbO and CuO contents in the tile glazes. The tile bodies of the Xinli samples had compositions similar to those of tile bodies from the Qing dynasty (1616–1912 AD). We speculated that the Xinli samples with different decorations came from different kiln sites.

The creation of the geographical space of Xanadu of the Yuan Dynasty and the establishment of a unified multiethnic state

From the establishment of a seat of government by Kublai Khan, Emperor Shizu of the Yuan Dynasty, at his residence at Jinlianchuan Prairie to the construction of the city of Kaiping, and from thence to the establishment of Kaiping as Xanadu, the northern capital of the Yuan Dynasty, a series of pivotal historical events influencing trends within the Yuan Empire took place in this steppe city. Shizu ultimately chose to implement a two-capital system, traveling back and forth between Xanadu and Khanbaliq to handle court administration and attend simultaneously to the needs of the Central Plains and the grasslands. By means of this structure, the Mongolian rulers declared their ownership of the territories of the Central Plains as well as the steppe, establishing their dominance and control by means of a ceremonial symbol. Analyzing the political and historical significance of this geographical space from Kaiping to Xanadu makes it clear that this region was an important historical artifact for the evolution of the Chinese people as an ethnic community with pluralistic unity. That the Yuan Dynasty achieved the integration of ethnic minorities and Han Chinese as one family as well as territorial unification represents a great step forward in Chinese history.

From national capital to provincial capital: Transformation of Hangzhou’s political spaces in the Early Yuan Dynasty

After achieving the unification of all under Heaven, the early Yuan rulers began to reform the political space of the Southern Song capital. The evolution of their policies was closely related to the ruling situation in Jiangnan. After the Yuan army captured Lin’an, ritualistic buildings with strong overtones of imperial power within and outside the city were gradually abandoned or transformed; out of consideration for the political impact, certain protective measures were taken. Due to Kublai Khan’s apprehensions that the situation in Jiangnan would worsen, as well as Sangha’s administration, the transformation tended to be radical: The imperial palace, imperial Daoist temples, Circular Mound Altar of the southern suburbs, the mausoleums of the emperors and empresses, and so on were forcibly transformed into Buddhist temples, sparking violent unrest in Jiangnan society. The Yuan court later adjusted the relevant measures, assigning to Hangzhou the status of a provincial capital, respecting local cultural traditions, and building government offices, ancestral shrines, gate towers, and so on in accord with the Confucian code of etiquette. At the turn of the Yuan and Ming dynasties, the historical facts associated with the transformation of Hangzhou in the early Yuan Dynasty had gradually become obscured, and many mystical legends were later derived therefrom, becoming an important historical reference for governance of Jiangnan by the rulers of later generations.

Identification of 13th-14th Century Chinese Handmade Paper Fibers Collected in Yuan Dynasty Paper Currencies

Identification of 13th-14th Century Chinese Handmade Paper Fibers Collected in Yuan Dynasty Paper Currencies

Exploration of the Formation Path of Yuan Dynasty Zaju Music and Script System

As the first peak in the development of Chinese drama, Yuan Dynasty Zaju was influenced by various factors in its formation. The external structure of Yuan Dynasty Zaju includes the music system and the script system, both of which exhibit different inheritances of “existing forms.” The music system was selected based on musical forms such as daqu, changzhuan, and various palace tunes, while the script system evolved through continuous practical exploration based on the trial-and-error experiences of drama performance. In pursuit of artistic continuity, this study explores the formation path of Yuan Dynasty Zaju, tracing its origins and connecting the artistic forms that preceded and followed the development of drama.

원 제국 제왕(諸王)의 고려 유배 양상

This study examines the exile of the kings of the Yuan Empire as recorded in Goryeo history. The surviving records from Goryeo are very short and provide only bland information about who went into exile, when, and where. The “why” of the exile is less specific or not recorded at all, so we need to look at the political situation along with the records of the Yuan Empire, such as the Yuan History, to understand or estimate the reasons why such a high-profile figure as the Kings went into exile in Goryeo.
 In the Yuan empire, the Kings was a member of the “golden clan” of Chinggis Khan and was not a “commoner”, so the exile of the Kings to a foreign country(Goryeo) was often the result of political turbulence or disturbances within the empire. In the cases analyzed in this article, except for a few cases where the reason for the exile is not clear, we can see that all of them were involved in rebellions within the empire or were involved in succession disputes. During Qubilai’s reign, rebellions challenging his authority often broke out, especially in the northern regions, and Sirigi himself led a rebellion, while the kings who participated in the Nayan-Qadan rebellion of the late 1280s and early 1290s also left their mark on Goryeo history through their exile. After Qubilai’s death, the succession dispute over the position of Qa’an(emperor) within the Yuan empire became increasingly intense, and the Kings involved in the dispute often went into exile in Goryeo.
 Examining the exile of Kings of the Yuan Empire, which remains very fragmentary in Goryeo history, in connection with Chinese records such as the Yuan History, is an inevitable task in order to understand the background of the emergence of Goryeo records about exile of Yuan Kings. It is also a task that allows us to more specifically confirm and supplement the vague accounts of exile to the sea islands in Chinese records through Goryeo history. While this article focuses on the exile of a Kings of Yuan Empire and compares the records of both Goryeo and Yuan, this methodology can also be applied to examine various phenomena or figures that emerged due to the specificity of the Goryeo-Yuan relationship.

A dataset of literary geography for Nanjing-related poetry

Poetry is one of the important carriers of historical and cultural heritance. Nanjing, distinguished as one of China's earliest national historical and cultural cities, holds the esteemed titles of the “Capital of Six Dynasties” and the “Capital of Ten Dynasties”, with a long history and profound cultural deposits. There are a large number of poems with Nanjing as the object of description, holding a wealth of cultural and geographical insights within Nanjing's poetic heritage. Exploring the abundant cultural and geographic knowledge is of great significance to the study on the city’s historical culture and literary geography. Based on the data sources of books such as The Complete Poetry Collection of Tang Dynasty, The Complete Ci-Poetry of Song Dynasty, A Dictionary of Poetry Appreciation in Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties, and Nanjing poetry map, in this paper, we selected the poems involving Nanjing written from Tang Dynasty to Qing Dynasty, sorted out literature and geographic information such as the poets’ life experience, poetry genre, poetry theme, the place described, literary landscape and landscape elements. On this basis, we produced a dataset of literary geography for Nanjing-related poetry. The dataset can serve as a valuable resource for researching historical culture and literary geography.

Налоговая терминология краткого собрания ханских ярлыков, выданных русским митрополитам

Research objectives: This study aims to determine the nature of payments made to the Golden Horde, as documented in the texts of the Short Collection of Khan’s jarlyks issued to Rus’ Metropolitans. Research materials: The research draws from various sources, including charters prepared by the orders of the Golden Horde and Yuan Empire rulers, charters of a spiritual and contractual nature from Rus’ princes, as well as Rus’ chronicles. Results and novelty of the research: This study proposes characteristics of the tax items found in Khan’s jarlyks and uncovers potential insertions within the label texts. It is demonstrated that the extensive list of duties present in the Khan’s charters was not originally a part of these documents. Many tax terms were intentionally added to the texts of the jarlyks during their translation into Russian. Some of these terms represented the Horde taxes that were actually collected from Russian lands, while others denoted payments recognized in Rus’, but not directed to the benefit of the Golden Horde. Furthermore, certain terms appear to be artificial tax designations.

Kashmiri “Imperial Preceptor” Namo (or Nanwu) in China During Yuan Dynasty

The Buddhist monk Namo (Nanwu), born in Kashmir, came to China during the Yuan Dynasty and was highly regarded by Emperor Xianzong (also known as Emperor Mengge) and honored as Imperial Preceptor, which ranked the highest in Buddhist monks. The place that Namo visited is in today's Zhengding County, Hebei Province. He was once the abbot of the Giant Buddhist Temple (also known as Longxing Temple) in Zhengding (a Prefecture at that time--added by translator). Namo was not only the first Imperial Preceptor of the Yuan Dynasty, who occupied an outstanding position in the history of Buddhism, but also selflessly funded the restoration of the Giant Buddhist Temple, which was recorded in the inscription of "Merit Record of Preceptor Nanwu of Dachao who repaired Longxing Temple, Zhending Prefecture", which is still preserved in Ci Shi Pavilion of the Giant Buddhist Temple.

Research on the spreading of Jing Xiao Chan Bao

Jing Xiao Chan Bao(, Tested Treasures in Obstetrics) written by Zan Yin is the earliest extant book of obstetrics and gynecology in China. It was dispersed after written and reappeard by the late Qing Dynasty. Although widely quoted in later medical books, its spread process is not clear yet. In this paper, we reviewed the process of the book's written and the catalogue of historical records, and analyze the type and scope of articles quoted from this book by the Song, Yuan, and Ming dynasties. It can be speculated that the book was lost in the late Song Dynasty and doctors in Yuan and Ming Dynasties have not seen the handed-down masterpiece.