Youth Sport Programs Research Articles

Youth sport volunteer coach motivation

Each year, over 20 million youth participate in sport (Ewing & Seefeldt, 2002). Public parks and recreation agencies are increasingly reliant on volunteers to deliver services (Silverberg, Backman, & Backman, 2000). These volunteers are especially vital to the delivery of youth recreation and sport programs (Twyam, Ferrell, & Johnston, 2002/2003). Volunteer positions in sport programs, especially coach positions, are difficult to fill (Cuskelly, Taylor, Hoye, & Darcy, 2006), and the retention of youth coaches is low (Paiement, 2007). The purpose of this study was to understand the motivations of youth sport coaches. A convenience sample of youth sport coaches completed the Volunteer Functions Inventory that measures motivations, along with demographic information. Results indicated that values were the most important function for youth sport coaches. A MANOVA revealed significant differences between first year and returning coaches for the functions of self-serving and personal growth but not for values and social. Implications for the recruitment and retention of youth sport coaches and future research are provided.

How much influence should government have in the decision-making process of youth sport programs (e.g., Little League)?

"How much influence should government have in the decision-making process of youth sport programs (e.g., Little League)?." Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 81(1), pp. 10–11

Journal abstracts from current research in the field of child and adolescent mental health

Debate RD, Kelley PG, Zwald M, Huberty J & Zhang Y (2009) Changes in psychosocial factors and physical activity frequency among third- to eighth-grade girls who participated in a developmentally focused youth sport program: A preliminary study. Journal of School Health 79(10): 474–484 Boyce JC, Mueller NB, Hogan-Watts M & Luke Douglas A (2009) Evaluating the strength of school tobacco policies: The development of a practical rating system. Journal of School Health 79(10): 495–504 Craine JL, Tanaka Teri A, Nishina A & Conger KJ (2009) Understanding adolescent delinquency: The role of older siblings' delinquency and popularity with peers. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 55(4): 436–453 Rosales FJ, Reznick JS & Zeisel SH (2009) Understanding the role of nutrition in the rain and behavioural development of toddlers and pre-school children: Identifying methodological barriers. Nutritional Neuroscience 12(5): 190–202 Clemmens DA (2009) The Significance of motherhood for adolescents whose mothers have breast cancer. Oncology Nursing Forum 36(5): 571–577 Archambault I, Janosz M, Morizot J & Pagani L (2009) Adolescent behavioural, affective, and cognitive engagement in school: Relationship to dropout. Journal of School Health 79(9): 408–415 Denison JA, McCauley AP, Dunnett-Dagg WA, Lungu N & Sweat MD (2009) HIV testing among adolescents in Ndola, Zambia: How individual, relational, and environmental factors relate to demand. AIDS Education & Prevention 21(4): 314–324 Pollock JA & Halkitis PN (2009) Environmental factors in relation to unprotected sexual behaviour among gay, bisexual and other MSM. AIDS Education & Prevention 21(4): 340–355 Nippold MA, Mansfield TC, Billow JL & Tomblin JB (2009) Syntactic development in adolescents with a history of language impairments: A follow-up investigation. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology 18(3): 241–251 Sharaf AY, Thompson EA & Walsh E (2009) Protective effects of self-esteem and family support on suicide risk behaviours among at-risk adolescents. Journal of Child & Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing 22(3): 160–168 Page RM & Hall CP (2009) Psychosocial distress and alcohol use as factors in adolescent sexual behaviour among sub-Saharan African adolescents. Journal of School Health 79(8): 369–379 Taliaferro LA, Rienzo BA, Pigg RM, Miller MD & Dodd VJ (2009) Spiritual well-being and suicidal ideation among college students. Journal of American College Health 58(1): 83–90 Jarrett T, Horn K & Zhang J (2009) Teen perceptions of facilitator characteristics in a school-based smoking cessation program. Journal of School Health 79(7): 297–303 Parker JS & Morton TL (2009) Distinguishing between early and late onset delinquents: Race, income, verbal intelligence and impulsivity. North American Journal of Psychology 11(2): 273–284 Burris JL, Smith GT & Carlson CR (2009) Relations among religiousness, spirituality and sexual practices. Journal of Sex Research 46(4): 282–289 Brown DW, Riley L, Butchart A, Meddings DR, Kann L & Harvey AP (2009) Exposure to physical and sexual violence and adverse health behaviours in African children: Results from the Global School-based Student Health Survey. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 87(6): 447-B

Changes in Psychosocial Factors and Physical Activity Frequency Among Third‐ to Eighth‐Grade Girls Who Participated in a Developmentally Focused Youth Sport Program: A Preliminary Study

Despite the numerous physiological, psychological, and academic benefits of physical activity (PA), declines in PA levels among girls have been observed over the last decade. The purpose of this preliminary study was to assess the short-term changes pertaining to Girls on the Run and Girls on Track developmentally focused youth sport programs (DYS) on global self-esteem, body image, commitment to PA, and PA frequency. This preliminary study employed a nonexperimental, one-group, pre- and postintervention study design using a 29-item paper-and-pencil assessment tool (n = 1034). Paired sample t-tests from pre- to postintervention revealed statistically significant differences in self-esteem (p < .001), body size satisfaction (p < .001), and vigorous PA frequency (p < .001). Stratification by the number of times participating in the intervention revealed the greatest changes at first participation followed with continued improvements in self-esteem (p = .013) and body size satisfaction (p < .001) for those participating in a second time. Age differences were also observed between participants </=10 years old and 11-15 years; in that significant improvements in commitment to PA (p = .003) were observed for the older girls. Findings suggest DYS programs Girls on the Run and Girls on Track may produce beneficial changes in self-esteem, body size satisfaction, PA commitment, and PA frequency. Although the findings from the current report are preliminary, they suggest that DYS programs designed exclusively for girls may provide the necessary framework to promote PA to achieve the numerous associated benefits.

An Evaluation of Personal and Contextual Factors in Competitive Youth Sport

Because millions of youth are involved in sport, the sport context is important to consider in advancing the growth experiences of young people (Côté et al., 2007; Fraser-Thomas et al., 2005). Furthermore, research in developmental psychology has highlighted the value of structured programs, including sport, in helping to promote positive youth development (Fredricks & Eccles, 2006). Youth sport involvement has been linked to high levels of enjoyment (Scanlan et al., 1989), however, negative outcomes, such as burnout, have also been reported (Gould et al., 1996). In the present study, the Developmental Assets Profile (Search Institute, 2004) was used to explore personal (internal assets) and contextual (external assets) outcomes associated with youth sport. Results suggest that three particular assets (positive identity, empowerment, and support) are important to focus on in youth sport programs to decrease burnout symptoms and enhance enjoyment. Path analyses were also conducted to test a proposed model and exploratory results confirmed links of particular assets to sport outcomes. The results are discussed in terms of integration with Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory (1999) and recommendations are suggested for sport programmers to consider to develop these assets within youth sport.

Nutritional Practices and Dietary Habits of School Children in a National Youth Sports Program

Nutritional Practices and Dietary Habits of School Children in a National Youth Sports Program

Exploring the life skills needs of British adolescent athletes

Objectives Youth sport programs have been designed to facilitate positive development of young sports people by teaching life skills. It is unclear which life skills are needed by adolescent athletes and which life skills should be included in youth sport programs. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore how life skills are defined, which life skills British adolescent athletes need, and which life skills are the most important. Design and method Nineteen adolescent athletes, 10 coaches, 4 experts in sport psychology (pilot group) and 5 graduate students (pilot group) participated in a series of focus groups. An inductive analysis revealed how life skills are defined, which life skills British adolescent athletes need, and of these skills which are the most important. Results Life skills were defined as ranges of transferable skills needed for everyday life, by everybody, that help people thrive. Participants described the need for interpersonal skills including social skills, respect, leadership, family interactions, and communication. Personal skills including self-organization, discipline, self-reliance, goal setting, managing performance outcomes, and motivation, were also reported. Social skills were identified as the most important life skills. Conclusions In conclusion, findings add support to existing positive youth development research while adding an insight into which life skills should be built into youth sport programs in the United Kingdom.

Give the Bench the Boot! Using Manning Theory to Design Youth-Sport Programs

Modified children’s sport programs are intended to increase opportunities for participation, skill acquisition, satisfaction, and enjoyment. Unfortunately, teams in modified programs sometimes consist of more players than can participate at any one time. Barker and Gump’s (1964) manning theory is used to analyze the effects of a modified children’s soccer program that excludes children from game participation by relegating them to the role of substitutes. Participant observation and interviews with coaches, parents, and players were conducted over 2 seasons. Findings are consistent with propositions from manning theory. Children’s teams provide a better social climate, more skill development, and greater enjoyment and satisfaction when teams are not allocated substitutes. These advantages are not reduced, and are sometimes elevated, when teams must sometimes play short handed. Administrative concerns about the potential risks of fielding teams without substitutes are found to be unwarranted, and the presence of substitutes restricts opportunities for youth-sport organizations to attract and retain members. These findings suggest a framework for the design and maintenance of modified children’s sport.

A Sane Island Surroundded

THE HEADLINE for the cover story of the sports section of USA Today on 9 February 2007 asked: Do prep basketball teams go too far? Underneath, a one-sentence summary read: Long-distance trips, whirlwind schedules mean missed class time but more TV exposure, money. The story recounted six days in which the boys' basketball team of Lakewood Artesia High School of California played five games, including one game in North Carolina. Over the years and across the nation, administrators of school sports programs have wrung their hands in worry and frustration over this sort of thing, which they believe is an example of the damage being done to interscholastic athletic programs by major college and professional sports, combined with nonschool sports programs for young people. However, all of these outside influences combined have not been as damaging to interscholastic athletics as the too frequent lack of creativity and courage on the part of those who are actually in charge of these programs. A combination of commercialism and professionalism has become a powerful force undermining the wholesome nature of amateur athletic programs in the local secondary schools of America. Meanwhile, those of us responsible for promoting the proper principles of school sports and protecting them from blatant attacks and insidious erosion have, for the most part, put up a pitiful defense. In some cases, we have simply retreated in full gallop. And we have gotten what our feeble efforts have deserved. But the seductions of commercialism and professionalism in scholastic sports were not created in a vacuum. The growth in popularity of professional sports in America parallels--in fact, has been primarily powered by--the introduction of television, and it has been the pervasive influence of television on American life that has driven content-starved networks to televise all kinds of sports, every day of the week, at all hours of the day. And this constant bombardment of the public psyche by a commercialized and professionalized version of sport has had its effect, first on college sports and, more recently, on scholastic sports. Numerous books have documented how and why men's basketball and football at the Division I level of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) have been seduced toward commercialism and professionalism.(1) The seduction of scholastic sports in the same direction is less spectacular and has been the subject of fewer books.(2) In recent decades, school sports programs have found themselves under assault not just from the levels of sports above (major college and professional sports), but also from those below: nonschool community youth sports programs. The Amateur Sports Act of 1978 removed the stranglehold of the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) on the U.S. Olympic Committee and the participation by U.S. athletes in international sports. The law empowered newly created individual sports federations, in sports ranging from basketball to gymnastics to soccer, to organize and to some degree to regulate a sport from top to bottom, except for the programs of schools and colleges. The growth of these programs eventually led to a proliferation of youth sports camps, leagues, and tournaments across a wide range of sports. These generally well-intentioned single-sport organizations understandably see the world almost exclusively from the viewpoint of their own sport. Over the years, these organizations have pushed athletes toward competition at ever earlier ages and in ever longer seasons. One unintended consequence is that, with rare exceptions, their calendars--if not their codes--have promoted specialization in a single sport year-round. Another unintended consequence of the 1978 legislation is that the AAU, no longer able to serve the international interests of dozens of sports, lowered its sights and aimed its efforts inward: not just to grass-roots youth sports organizations, but also to leagues, camps, and tournaments for basketball teams for players aged 8 to 18. …

De-emphasizing Competition in Organized Youth Sport: Misdirected Reforms and Misled Children

Throughout the twentieth century, organized youth sport became an increasingly prevalent childhood experience across Western societies—especially in affluent ones. Millions of children participate in organized sport each year. Partici pation is accepted and encouraged as an integral part of children’s lives because of its alleged benefits. Arguably, the goal of organized youth sport is to foster children’s overall welfare. Competition has played a prominent and sometimes controversial role in programs espousing this objective. It is precisely through the organization and administration of competitive sports that youth sport programs seek to advance their goal. However, the growing emphasis on winning, as well as the myriad of excesses and abuses that it has created among parents, coaches, spectators, and young athletes, has generated a massive wave of criticism against competition (6;7;11;26;33;37). Many professional organizations, advocacy groups, and experts in the field believe that organized youth sport programs are in crisis and have recommended reforms designed to establish a healthy environment that emphasizes children’s needs and interests first, so they can make the most of their sport experiences. To ensure this, those who advocate the refocusing of organized youth sport maintain that these programs should “emphasize that there should be action, [and] involvement among all participants” and that adults “need to encourage fun” (6: p. 147; 33). The gist of their proposals is to reprioritize the values inspiring participation in organized youth sport, which necessitates moving away from organizational models that mimic adult-oriented priorities. While confessedly de-emphasizing competition, the recommendations to emphasize action and fun have led organizers and administrators to discourage the formation of regular competitive teams and the keeping of scores or standings, to limit traveling outside the community, and to ensure minimal playing time for all young athletes. This set of recommendations and measures constitutes a growing trend in organized youth sport programs—a trend through which programs purport to underscore children’s interests and welfare over competitive performance and outcomes. In this essay, we argue that this trend in organized youth sport is unwarranted and misleading to children. We believe that when children are initiated into such

Youth sport as a component of organized afterschool programs

Organized afterschool programs have received increased attention over the past two decades because of changes in family demographics and in society's structures for supervising and socializing youth. The number of afterschool programs has been rapidly expanding to meet the increased need. However, not all youth in need are being reached, and the programs that are being created are loosely connected. The authors present several advantages of more fully integrating sport and afterschool activities. There are well-documented positive effects of physical activity and sports participation on physical and psychosocial youth outcomes, especially if those programs are implemented with these points in mind. Promoting healthy lifestyles and preventing obesity are also important federal- and state-level policy priorities. Finally, physical activity and fitness and sport participation are linked with improved cognitive functioning and greater academic achievement, two desired outcomes of many afterschool programs. The authors note, however, that many youth sports programs designed to enhance positive youth development will not succeed without more attention focused on improving them, because they do not use best practices and principles of afterschool and youth sports programs. The authors focus on best practice ideas in four areas that are essential to the successful intersection of youth sport and afterschool programming: setting a clear mission, programming with appropriate content, staff training, and research and evaluation or frequent assessments. They illustrate best practices in each of these areas using program descriptions and provide recommendations for strengthening the connections among afterschool programs, sports, and physical activity.

An overview of how sports, out‐of‐school time, and youth well‐being can and do intersect

This article examines the benefits and disadvantages of participation in organized youth sports and describes a youth development approach to sports programming. The authors summarize what is known about the physical, socioemotional, and cognitive benefits of sports participation. These include health benefits (for example, a reduction in heart disease and diabetes) as well as socioemotional benefits, among them the coping skills of being able to bounce back from problems. The authors describe some of the disadvantages of participation as well. In particular, studies in this area have focused on health risk behaviors and engagement in problem behaviors. The authors present an innovative approach to youth sports and the advantages of implementing this approach using the emerging community youth development framework. Specific examples of youth sports programs are provided that use a positive youth development framework.

The Role of a Caring-Based Intervention in a Physical Activity Setting

This preliminary study examined the effect of a caring-based versus a traditionally-focused physical activity intervention on underserved adolescents’ perceptions of the caring climate, the motivational climate, empathetic concern, enjoyment, and future anticipated participation. Multiethnic youth (N = 353) aged 9 to 17 involved in two National Youth Sports Program (NYSP) sites participated in the study. The Caring Group (n = 90) participated in a program infused with themes of caring while the Traditional Group (n = 263) followed prototypical NYSP training, practices, and procedures. Self report assessments were gathered after 5 weeks in either setting. After accounting for demographic differences findings revealed that the Caring Group perceived significantly higher levels of a caring climate, empathetic concern, future expected participation, and lower levels of perceptions of an ego-involving motivational climate. The relevance of these findings with respect to the optimal development of youth is discussed.

Developmental activities that lead to dropout and investment in sport

Background: Studies suggest that expert performance in sport is the result of long-term engagement in a highly specialized form of training termed deliberate practice. The relationship between accumulated deliberate practice and performance predicts that those who begin deliberate practice at a young age accumulate more practice hours over time and would, therefore, have a significant performance advantage. However, qualitative studies have shown that a large amount of sport-specific practice at a young age may lead to negative consequences, such as dropout, and is not necessarily the only path to expert performance in sport. Studies have yet to investigate the activity context, such as the amount of early sport participation, deliberate play and deliberate practice within which dropout occurs. Purpose: To determine whether the nature and amount of childhood-organized sport, deliberate play and deliberate practice participation influence athletes' subsequent decisions to drop out or invest in organized sport. It was hypothesized that young athletes who drop out will have sampled fewer sports, spent less time in deliberate play activities and spent more time in deliberate practice activities during childhood sport involvement. Participants: The parents of eight current, high-level, male, minor ice hockey players formed an active group. The parents of four high-level, male, minor ice hockey players who had recently withdrawn from competitive hockey formed a dropout group. Data collection: Parents completed a structured retrospective survey designed to assess their sons' involvement in organized sport, deliberate play and deliberate practice activities from ages 6 to 13. Data analysis: A complete data-set was available for ages 6 through 13, resulting in a longitudinal data-set spanning eight years. This eight-year range was divided into three levels of development corresponding to the players' progress through the youth ice hockey system. Level one encompassed ages 6–9, level two included ages 10–11 and level three covered ages 12–13. Descriptive statistics were used to report the ages at which the active and dropout players first engaged in select hockey activities. ANOVA with repeated measures across the three levels of development was used to compare the number of sports the active and dropout players were involved in outside of hockey, the number of hours spent in these sports, and involvement in various hockey-related activities. Findings: Results indicated that both the active and dropout players enjoyed a diverse and playful introduction to sport. Furthermore, the active and dropout players invested similar amounts of time in organized hockey games, organized hockey practices, specialized hockey training activities (e.g. hockey camps) and hockey play. However, analysis revealed that the dropout players began off-ice training at a younger age and invested significantly more hours/year in off-ice training at ages 12–13, indicating that engaging in off-ice training activities at a younger age may have negative implications for long-term ice hockey participation. Conclusion: These results are consistent with previous research that has found that early diversification does not hinder sport-specific skill development and it may, in fact, be preferable to early specialization. The active and dropout players differed in one important aspect of deliberate practice: off-ice training activities. The dropout players began off-ice training at a younger age, and participated in more off-ice training at ages 12 and 13 than their active counterparts. This indicates a form of early specialization and supports the postulate that early involvement in practice activities that are not enjoyable may ultimately undermine the intrinsic motivation to continue in sport. Youth sport programs should not focus on developing athletic fitness through intense and routine training, but rather on sport-specific practice, games and play activities that foster fun and enjoyment.

Planning Youth Sports Programs that Foster Psychological Development

Planning Youth Sports Programs that Foster Psychological Development

Reformation or Reclassification? A Proposal of a Rating System for Youth Sport Programs

The vast diversity in goals and emphases of sport programs for children and the potential problems that exist when a child is enrolled in a program that does not best serve his/her needs accentuate the need for a rating system for youth sport programs. The current proposal of a youth sport rating scale would provide information for parents on the amount of competition, playing time, travel, and commitment a child enrolled in a program could reasonably expect. A discussion of the history of the rating system in the entertainment industries is compared, and potential diffi culties and recommendations for implementing a rating system in youth sports are provided.

Volunteer Youth Sport Coaches' Perspectives of Coaching Education/Certification and Parental Codes of Conduct

Abstract The vast majority of youth sport programs in the United States relies primarily on parent volunteers to serve as coaches. Unfortunately, most of these volunteer coaches have not received formal training to prepare them adequately for the role of youth sport coach. To exacerbate the issue, according to the popular media, parents and other adults can commit belligerent and even violent acts around, and often resulting from, poorly managed youth sport events. Although some efforts have been made to standardize curricula, provide training for coaches, and contain or prevent inappropriate parent behaviors, few efforts have been directed at investigating the self-described needs and concerns of the coaches from their perspectives. The purpose of the current study was to investigate the concerns and issues of youth sport coaches related to coaching and parental education. Five focus group interviews with 25 volunteer youth sport coaches were conducted to investigate these issues. Results were organized around four higher order themes that emerged from inductive content analyses: (a) coaching education content areas of need, (b) barriers and problems of offering coaching education, (c) coaching education format recommendations, and (d) efficacy of parental codes of conduct. Results were discussed in terms of the potential impact administrators, coaches, and parents could have in implementing formal coaching education programs and developing their coaching education practices.

Volunteer Youth Sport Coaches' Perspectives of Coaching Education/Certification and Parental Codes of Conduct

The vast majority of youth sport programs in the United States relies primarily on parent volunteers to serve as coaches. Unfortunately, most of these volunteer coaches have not received formal training to prepare them adequately for the role of youth sport coach. To exacerbate the issue, according to the popular media, parents and other adults can commit belligerent and even violent acts around, and often resulting from, poorly managed youth sport events. Although some efforts have been made to standardize curricula, provide training for coaches, and contain or prevent inappropriate parent behaviors, few efforts have been directed at investigating the self-described needs and concerns of the coaches from their perspectives. The purpose of the current study was to investigate the concerns and issues of youth sport coaches related to coaching and parental education. Five focus group interviews with 25 volunteer youth sport coaches were conducted to investigate these issues. Results were organized around four higher order themes that emerged from inductive content analyses: (a) coaching education content areas of need, (b) barriers and problems of offering coaching education, (c) coaching education format recommendations, and (d) efficacy of parental codes of conduct. Results were discussed in terms of the potential impact administrators, coaches, and parents could have in implementing formal coaching education programs and developing their coaching education practices.

A SWOT Analysis of the Field of Virtual Reality Rehabilitation and Therapy

The use of virtual-reality technology in the areas of rehabilitation and therapy continues to grow, with encouraging results being reported for applications that address human physical, cognitive, and psychological functioning. This article presents a SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats) analysis for the field of VR rehabilitation and therapy. The SWOT analysis is a commonly employed framework in the business world for analyzing the factors that influence a company's competitive position in the marketplace with an eye to the future. However, the SWOT framework can also be usefully applied outside of the pure business domain. A quick check on the Internet will turn up SWOT analyses for urban-renewal projects, career planning, website design, youth sports programs, and evaluation of academic research centers, and it becomes obvious that it can be usefully applied to assess and guide any organized human endeavor designed to accomplish a mission. It is hoped that this structured examination of the factors relevant to the current and future status of VR rehabilitation will provide a good overview of the key issues and concerns that are relevant for understanding and advancing this vital application area.

A Framework for Planning Youth Sport Programs That Foster Psychosocial Development

Although there is considerable interest in the use of sport as a vehicle to promote psychosocial development in youth, little is known about the specific content or implementation strategies that are likely to account for positive outcomes. In this article, a brief review of current literature and a working definition of youth development through sport are provided to lay a foundation for a framework for planning youth sport programs that are structured to promote psychosocial development in participants. The components of the framework are outlined and suggestions for research, evaluation, and program development are offered.