Young Stock Research Articles

The origin of the young pulsar PSR J0826+2637 and its possible former companion HIP 13962

We aim to identify the birth place of the young pulsar PSR J0826+2637 in order to determine its kinematic age and give constraints on its radial and spatial (kick) velocity. Since the majority of neutron star (NS) progenitors are in associations or clusters, we search for a possible origin of the NS inside such stellar groups. We trace back the NS and the centres of possible birth associations and clusters to find close encounters. The kinematic age is then given by the time since the encounter. We use Monte Carlo simulations to account for observational uncertainties and the unknown radial velocity of the NS. We evaluate the outcome statistically. In order to find further indication for our findings, we also search for a runaway star that could be the former companion if it exists. We find that PSR J0826+2637 was probably born in the small young cluster Stock 7 ~3 Myr ago. This result is supported by the identification of the former companion candidate HIP 13962 (runaway star with spectral type G0Ia). The scenario predicts a near-zero radial velocity of the pulsar implying an inclination angle of its motion to the line-of-sight of 87+/-11 deg. We also present the chemical abundances of HIP 13962. We do not find enhanced alpha element abundances in the highly evolved star. However, the binary supernova scenario may be supported by the overabundance of r-process elements that could have been ejected during the supernova and accreted by the runaway star. Also, a high rotational velocity of v sin i ~29 km/s of HIP 13962 is consistent with evolution in a pre-SN binary system.

Using qualitative behaviour assessment to explore the link between stockperson behaviour and dairy calf behaviour

Dairy farming usually implies close and frequent contact between the stockperson and the animals. A good human–animal relationship (HAR) is therefore essential for good animal welfare. To fully understand the quality of the HAR both the stockperson behaviour and the animals’ reaction to the handler needs to be assessed, as they mutually affect each other. Qualitative behaviour assessment (QBA) has during the last decade become a method to assess animal welfare through scrutiny of animal body language. The application of this method to characterize stockperson behaviour, on the other hand, is novel. This study aimed to, through the use of QBA, to characterize stockperson behaviour and to portray the body language dairy calves of the animals in his/her care. Further, the study tested the relationships between stockperson behaviour and calf behaviour using structural equation modelling (SEM). The assessments were performed in 2006–2008 on 110 Norwegian dairy farms. The stockperson sample consisted of 79.6% males and 20.4% females, with a mean age of 46 years. The dairy calves (including young stock) were mostly Norwegian Red and were 3 to 298 days old at the day of observation. Ten items of the stockperson QBA were analysed through Principal component analysis. The handling styles that emerged were termed calm/patient, dominating/aggressive, positive interactions and insecure/nervous. The 31 items of the calf QBA were also analysed using principal component analysis and revealed two dimensions of calf behaviour labelled pos/neg mood and high/low arousal. Based on the expected relationships between stockperson behaviour and calf behaviour a structural model was developed and tested using SEM. The analysis revealed that stockpersons who handle their calves patiently and pet and calmly talk to them during handling have animals with higher levels of positive mood, as characterized by high scores on QBA items like friendly and content. Stockpersons with a nervous handling style, or who were dominating and aggressive, on the other hand, had calves with more negative mood. These findings are important as they show the direct link between human behaviour and calf behaviour and once again confirm the significance of good stockmanship. The results also highlight the importance of proper training and self-awareness for those working with livestock.

Incidence and effects of diseases in sheep in Uttar Pradesh

The present study was undertaken to analyze the incidence and effects of diseases in Sheep. The prevalence of specific diseases (42.0%) (FMD 11.7% and HS 30.30%) were more prominent followed by parasitic diseases (18%) digestive diseases (18%) and respiratory diseases (18.0%). while reproductive and other diseases (enterotoxaemia, skin infections) were also prevalent at lower morbidity rate (2.0%) in the study area. Lambs were highly affected by parasitic diseases (41.67%). In young stocks the highest proportional morbidity rate was observed due to digestive diseases (26.32%) while in adults other diseases (4.0%) had high morbidity. Males were affected more by specific diseases (48.72%) followed by parasitic diseases (23.08%). But in females, highest proportional morbidity rate was observed due to respiratory diseases (22.95%). The highest mortality was due to specific diseases (41.86%) followed by parasitic diseases (20.93%) and digestive diseases (20.93%). The analysis of the data on the effect of disease on wool yield in sheep did not reveal any significant difference in wool reduction due to pasturellosis and circling diseases. Overall wool reduction due to both diseases was (44.88%) but pasturellosis had higher effect (44.94%) than circling disease (44.76%) on wool production in sheep.

Epidemiological studies of gastrointestinal parasitic infections in ruminants in Jakiri, Bui Division, North West Region of Cameroon

Goats recorded the highest (90.4%) prevalence of GIT parasites, followed by sheep (73.1%), and the least prevalence was observed in cattle (56.7%). Concerning the various management techniques, prevalence of GIT parasites were higher in tethered animals (88.1%) followed by free range grazing animals (60.9%). Animals confined in paddocks had the least prevalence (45.5%). Eimeria species recorded the highest prevalence (20.9%) among the various species of parasites encountered during the study in cattle, Trichostrongylus species and Eimeria spp. in sheep (28.8%) while the highest prevalence in goats was Trichostrongylus spp. (55.8). Mixed infections of Trichostrongylus spp., Eimeria spp. and Haemonhus species were most prevalent in all the animal species. The prevalences of Fasciola species and Moneiza species were significantly low in all the three animal groups in the study area. Adults were more infected compared to young stock animals (lambs and kids). This work provides an important step to minimize economic losses in ruminants by providing information that will help farmers practice the right traditional management techniques. Key words: Gastrointestinal parasites, ruminants, prevalence, management systems, Jakiri, Cameroon.

A study on helminthiasis of cattle herds in Kachia grazing reserve (KGR) of Kaduna state, Nigeria

Aim: This study was conducted with the aim of determining the prevalence of helminthes in cattle and treatment intervention strategy in Kachia Grazing Reserve (KGR). Materials and Methods: A total of 3,651 cattle from 88 households were randomly selected, sampled and examined . The sampling was spread over three (3) periods; Pre-intervention (1,609), Intervention (1,525) and Post-intervention (517). Both physical examination and laboratory investigation were employed in the study. Results: This study revealed the presence of different types of helminthes in the bovine population of the KGR which include the helminth eggs of Nematodes (Oesophagostomum radiatum, Bonustonum phlebotomum, Tricuris globulosa, Cooperia pectinita, Toxocara vitulorum, Strongiloides papillosus, Strogylus langamus), Cestodes (Moneizia benedeni) and Trematodes ( Schistosoma bovis, Paramphistomum cervi, Fasciola gigantica) at different intervention periods, where by 820 (53.77%) were positive for pre- intervention, 946 (58.79%) positive for intervention and 205 (39.65%) were positive for postintervention period. Among the eleven species of helminthes identified, P. cervi was the most prevalent in all the periods, followed by O. radiatum. The study also revealed that the cattle in the study area were infected with single and multiple infections. Furthermore, 498(32.66%), 585(36.36%) and 171(33.08%) of cattle for the pre- intervention, intervention and post- intervention periods, respectively had single infection. However, 305 (20%), 381 (23.68%) and 37 (7.16%) of the cattle for the three periods, respectively harbored multiple infections (polyparasitism) caused by two to six different parasites. The results also show that age was a factor in the abundance of the parasites in the cattle as parasites were demonstrated more in adult cattle than the young stock (calves and yearlings). Chi-square and Kruskal Wallis showed a significant difference (p < 0.05) in the prevalence during the three periods. Conclusion: The present study revealed that helminthes of cattle are common in KGR; hence there is a need for regular faecal examination and routine treatment of the herds instead of treating the individual cases.

Morphological and quantitative evaluation of the ovarian recrudescence in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) after spawning in captivity

The Nile tilapia is one of the most important fish species for aquaculture worldwide. Understanding their reproductive biology is essential for improving their aquaculture methods. The morphological and quantitative dynamics of ovarian recrudescence of Oreochromis niloticus was studied for 21 days postspawning. To accomplish this, breeding females were kept in controlled conditions and ovarian samples were collected weekly for histological, ultrastructural and morphometric analyses. Ovarian follicle morphology revealed an intense synthesis activity of the follicular cells, which actively contributed to formation of the zona radiata and oocyte development following spawning. Recently spawned ovaries contained follicles at all developmental stages, but they were predominantly early primary growth (∼ 42%) and full-grown follicles (∼ 20%). Remnants of spawning, postovulatory follicle complexes represented approximately 5% of the former ovarian follicles immediately after spawning, and less than 1% after 7 days. Atretic follicles accounted for approximately 2% of the follicles studied during the period. The stock of primary growth follicles was stable during ovarian recrudescence, indicating their availability for continuous recruitment. Only the frequency of full-grown follicles significantly increased in the ovaries during recrudescence, representing approximately 35% of the follicles 21 days postspawning. The diameters of all follicles were significantly different between the periods analyzed. The ovaries' morphological characteristics, the maintenance of young follicles stocks and the gradual and significant increase in the proportion and diameter of full-grown follicles showed a rapid ovarian recovery and follicular growth of O. niloticus, in 21 days at 29.5°C, necessary for the next spawning.

The average culling rate of Dutch dairy herds over the years 2007 to 2010 and its association with herd reproduction, performance and health

Optimising the number of replacement heifers needed will have positive economic and environmental consequences on herds that rear their own young stock. The number of heifers needed to be kept is closely related with the number of culled dairy cows in the herd. This study therefore looked at the variation that exists in culling rate and herd level factors associated with it. A dataset from 1903 dairy herds available included information at animal level (dates of culling, slaughter/death) and herd level (characteristics of reproduction, performance, health) over the years 2007 to 2010. The average culling rate for slaughter/death was used and was defined for each year as percentage of the herd size that died within 30d after they were culled. The analysis of the association between average culling rate for slaughter/death and the characteristics of the herd was performed using a mixed model. The results showed that the average culling rate for slaughter/death was 25·4% and varied between 23% (2007) and 28% (2010). More than 70% of the herds have an average culling rate for slaughter/death of less than 30%, showing that there is room for lowering the average culling rate for slaughter/death. A higher average culling rate for slaughter/death is associated with a longer average calving interval, a higher average 305-d protein production, a higher average somatic cell count (SCC), a higher percentage of new high SCC, a more than 5% decrease in herd size, and herds that bought more than 1% of animals per year. A lower average culling rate for slaughter/death is associated with a longer average age, herds that bought less than 1% of animals per year and a more than 5% increase in herd size. In conclusion, the average culling rate for slaughter/death is associated with fertility, udder health and openness of the herd.

Effects of two finishing diets on growth performance, carcass characteristics and feeding behaviour of Slovenian Cika and Simmental young bulls

This study aimed at comparing the effects of a traditional finishing roughage-based diet and a higher energy diet, on growth, carcass characteristics, and feeding behaviour of Slovenian Cika and Simmental bulls (20 per breed). The experimental diets were: extensive (EXT) based on grass silage, and semi-intensive (S-INT) in which a part of the roughage was replaced with maize silage and sunflower meal. Each diet was fed ad libitum to 10 Cika (547 days old) and 10 Simmental (442 days old) bulls housed in group pens of five animals each. Growth performance was similar in both breeds, but Cika reached commercial finishing 1 month earlier than Simmental (139 vs 167 days; P = 0.016). Bulls fed S-INT had higher final weight (645.3 vs 590.1 kg; P = 0.05), average daily growth (1.05 vs 0.83 kg; P = 0.026), and feed intake (11.7 vs 10.6 kg dry matter (DM)/day; P &lt; 0.001) than EXT bulls. Regardless of breed and diet, bulls ate 77–80% of the daily DM in the first 8 h after feed delivery. Bulls fed EXT showed longer standing (406.4 vs 355.8 min; P &lt; 0.001) and eating (217.2 vs 155.3 min; P &lt; 0.001) and shorter ruminating (77.5 vs 92.9 min; P &lt; 0.001) times than S-INT bulls during the first 8 h of feed delivery. Cika bulls had lower full reticulo-rumen weights relative to slaughter weights (8.7 vs 10.7%; P = 0.002) than Simmental. The positive findings obtained with Cika cattle should encourage farmers to finish their young Cika male stocks for beef production, thus contributing to the maintenance of this animal genetic resource, and also to increase the energy density of the grass-based finishing diets by feeding supplements.

Economic values for yield, survival, calving interval and beef daily gain for three breeds in Slovenia

Breeding indices need to be looked at periodically to evaluate the objective of the breeding program. In recent times the economic perspective of the breeding program has received a higher priority in deciding breeding objectives than in the past. However, prices of input and output products are becoming more difficult to predict with increased fluctuations in most prices, which adds a level of complexity to their inclusion in the selection index. With these challenges in mind, the breeding program in a new EU country (Slovenia) was evaluated. All three national Breeding Associations joined the deliberations. The aim of this study was to develop an economic selection index for three breeds (Simmental, Brown Swiss and Holstein-Friesian) in Slovenia. Because farming circumstances differ within Slovenia, differences in the production systems were also taken into account; e.g., flat land vs. hilly/mountainous areas, and for conventional vs. organic farming. Economic values (€) were calculated for milk, fat and protein yields (€/cow/year/kg), survival (€/cow/year/%survival), calving interval (€/cow/year/day), and beef daily gain (€/cow/year/kg). Economic values were calculated by changing one of these traits whilst keeping the other traits at the default level. Economic indices were calculated using a farm economic model (Moorepark Dairy Systems Model). Herd parameters (e.g., number of milking cows, replacements, young stock and calving pattern), milk production, feed requirements and ration, land use and labour requirements were re-parameterised in order to be relevant to the Slovenian circumstances. Absolute economic values were slightly negative for milk yield for all breeds (−0.02 to −0.04€ per kg milk), but positive for milk components (0.55 to 1.45€ per kg fat, and 2.89 to 3.38€ per kg protein). High absolute economic values were calculated for survival (7.37 to 9.55€ per %). Absolute economic values for calving interval were approximately −1€ per day for all breeds, while the economic value for beef daily gain was 0.14€ per kg for Brown Swiss and 0.32€ per kg for Simmental. The constructed economic indices ranked bulls in a significantly different manner than how the Slovenian Total Merit Indices ranked the bulls. The economic indices were robust towards changes in prices and farming system. Ranking was most sensitive towards variation in milk price. Assumptions concerning feed intake in relation to growth influenced the economic value for beef daily gain. Assumptions regarding the farming system (i.e., organic farming systems) only slightly affected the ranking of the bulls.

Review of the Michigan Upper Peninsula Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Eradication Project

To evaluate the effects of a voluntary regional bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) control project implemented in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. Longitudinal study. Sample-294 cattle producers and 11,917 cattle from the Upper Peninsula. Producer participation was assessed to determine the effectiveness of the project's promotional and educational campaigns. Participating herds were screened for cattle persistently infected (PI) with BVDV by real-time reverse transcriptase PCR assay on ear notch specimens from all newborn calves and cattle that did not calve (bulls and young stock) during the year of enrollment. Responses to a survey administered to producers 4 years after project initiation were evaluated to assess the project's effect on BVDV management practices implemented by producers. 294 of 495 (59%) known cattle producers in the Upper Peninsula participated in the project, and 11,917 cattle from 232 herds were tested for BVDV, of which 22 (0.18%) cattle from 9 (3.9%) herds were identified as PI with BVDV and euthanized or slaughtered. Of 140 survey respondents, 85 (61%) indicated they would test all new herd additions for BVDV, 83 (59%) would quarantine new herd additions for 30 days before introducing them to the main herd, and 81 (58%) would use the fact that their herd was free of cattle PI with BVDV for marketing purposes. Results indicated that the project enhanced producer knowledge about BVDV and led to changes in producer behavior regarding BVDV management. Stakeholder engagement was as critical to project success as was increased BVDV knowledge.

Relationship between Presence of Cows with Milk Positive for Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis-Specific Antibody by Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay and Viable M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis in Dust in Cattle Barns

Paratuberculosis, or Johne's disease, in cattle is caused by Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis, which has recently been suspected to be transmitted through dust. This longitudinal study on eight commercial M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis-positive dairy farms studied the relationship between the number of cows with M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis antibody-positive milk and the presence of viable M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis in settled-dust samples, including their temporal relationship. Milk and dust samples were collected in parallel monthly for 2 years. M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis antibodies in milk were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and used as a proxy for M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis shedding. Settled-dust samples were collected by using electrostatic dust collectors (EDCs) at six locations in housing for dairy cattle and young stock. The presence of viable M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis was identified by liquid culture and PCR. The results showed a positive relationship (odds ratio [OR], 1.2) between the number of cows with ELISA-positive milk and the odds of having positive EDCs in the same airspace as the adult dairy cattle. Moreover, the total number of lactating cows also showed an OR slightly above 1. This relationship remained the same for settled-dust samples collected up to 2 months before or after the time of milk sampling. The results suggest that removal of adult cows with milk positive for M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis-specific antibody by ELISA might result in a decrease in the presence of viable M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis in dust and therefore in the environment. However, this decrease is likely delayed by several weeks at least. In addition, the data support the notion that M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis exposure of young stock is reduced by separate housing.

Eimeriosis in Danish Dairy Calves – Correlation between Species, Oocyst Excretion and Diarrhoea

The study collected up-to-date data on prevalence and importance of Eimeria infections in Danish dairy calves with suspected clinical eimeriosis and analysed correlation between Eimeria spp., oocyst excretion and diarrhoea. From October 2010 through August 2011, veterinarians collected faecal samples from dairy herds (n = 52) with > 50 cows and a history of diarrhoea in young stock. Individual faecal samples were collected 3–4 weeks following re-housing to common pens from calves (n = 453) aged 3 weeks to 6 months. Faecal consistency and total number of oocysts per gram of faeces (opg) were determined, along with opg values for the specific Eimeria spp. Association between opg and faeces consistency was evaluated in a multinomial, logistic regression model. Overall prevalence of Eimeria spp. was 96.2 % with a prevalence of 60.9 % in individual calves. E. zuernii and/or E. bovis were detected in 88.5 % of the herds and 41.5 % of the calves. Mean opg was 2,040 (range 0–114,000) in the calves, of which 18.1 % had opg values ≥ 1,000. A total of 12 Eimeria spp. was found with the following calf prevalences: E. ellipsoidalis (37 %), E. zuernii (32 %), E. bovis (28 %), E. cylindrica (23 %), E. auburnensis (23 %), E. canadensis (10 %), E. subspherica (8 %), E. alabamensis (7 %), E. bukidnonensis (3 %), E. wyomingensis (1 %), E. pellita (0.2 %), E. brasiliensis (0.2 %). Mixed infections were present in all but one Eimeria-positive herds. Diarrhoea was seen in 35.9 % of the calves, and a significant (p = 0.003) positive correlation was detected between diarrhoea and total opg as well as diarrhoea and oocyst excretion for E. zuernii (p = 0.03), E. bovis (p = 0.05) and E. cylindrica (p = 0.04). No such relationship could be detected for E. ellipsoidalis (p = 0.87), E. subspherica (p = 0.54) or E. auburnensis (p = 0.10). Further studies should focus on possible synergistic effects of multiple Eimeria spp. infections as well as interaction between Eimeria spp. and other enteric pathogens.

Hazard perception of Dutch farmers and veterinarians related to dairy young stock rearing

A group of 110 dairy farmers and 26 bovine veterinarians participated in a web-based questionnaire using the adaptive conjoint analysis technique to rank their perception regarding several hazards during 6 subsequent periods of the process of dairy young stock rearing. The method applied only involved selected respondents with a high consistency in their answering (correlation >30%). For the ranking, answers were first transformed into a utility score (US) for each hazard. The final ranking for each of the 6 periods was based on the US per hazard separately for farmers and veterinarians. Besides the ranking, the absolute values and the US itself were also compared between farmers and veterinarians to determine any statistically significant differences between the levels of the score despite the ranking. The overall conclusion is that, for almost every designated period, the ranking of the hazards differed between farmers and veterinarians. Only 1 period was observed (period IV, Pregnancy period until 4 weeks before calving) where veterinarians and farmers had the same top 3 ranking of the hazards, namely “Mastitis,” “Abortion,” and “Poor growth rate of the pregnant heifer.” Major differences between farmers and veterinarians were seen during period II (feeding milk until weaning) for the hazard “Diarrhea in older calf,” which was considered less important by farmers compared to veterinarians, and period number III (weaning until insemination) for “Over-condition,” which, again, was seen as the most important hazard by veterinarians, but only ranked as number 5 by farmers. Besides the ranking, significant differences in absolute US values between veterinarians and farmers were seen in “Infection with Johne's disease” (14.5 vs. 7.8), “Diarrhea in newborn calf” (18.2 vs. 12.2), and “Insufficient feed intake” (16.2 vs. 8.4) in period I (colostrum until transition to milk replacer). Lameness represented the most important significant difference in absolute values in period III (weaning until insemination; 6.3 vs. 14.3), which was again significant in period V (4 wks before calving until calving; 7.4 vs. 12.1). The outcome of this study shows that hazard perception of veterinarians and farmers differs for most rearing periods (in ranking and absolute values). The outcome of this study can be used for 2 purposes: first, to improve communication between farmers and their consulting veterinarian about hazards and hazard perception in young stock rearing; and second, the US scores can be used to select top priority hazards which should at least be integrated into management advisory programs to improve dairy young stock rearing.

Eradication of BVDV in cattle: the Norwegian project

The intention of this collaborative project was eradication of pestivirus from the Norwegian cattle population of about 30,000 dairy and beef herds, primarily by identification and culling of persistently infected...

Nutrient contents of soyabeans: A guide for sugarcane growers under fast track land reform programme [FTLRP] in Zimbabwe

Soyabean biomass, stover and roots when incorporate d into the soil can improve the organic matter and the carbon ( C): nitrogen ( N) ratio of the soil. Of its total N, 60 - 90% is translocated into the see d. This research was conducted on sandy clay loams of the lithosol group under the Zimbabwe soil classification system at The Zimbabwe Sugar Association Experiment Station (Z.S.A.E.S) in the South Eastern Lowveld, the leading sugarcane producing region in Zimbabwe . The objectives of this research were to: 1) analyse the nutrient content of the soyabeans under study, 2) assess the contributions of the various soyabean parts to soil fertility, 3) determine the liming potential of the soyabeans and 4) determine the forage potential of the two soyabean varieties as livestock feeds. The following parameters were measured: 1) nutrient composition of the vegetable and grain soyabeans, soyabean biomass 2) nitrogen fixed by both grain and vegetable soyabeans . Vegetable soyabeans (variety S114) and grain soyabeans (variety Storm ) were used for this study . Vegetable soyabeans had higher nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium while grain soyabean s had higher calcium and magnesium. This shows that vegetable soyabeans a s a nitrogen fixing crop have Plural? the potential to ameliorate soil fertility . However, grain soyabeans seem to have better liming potential than vegetable soyabeans. Forage Storm can improve the magnesium and calcium constituency of livestock while vegetable soya beans can influence the phosphorus content . The two elements are critical to lactating cows and young stock. The crops have high levels of calcium and magnesium , which are the critical elements for the improvement of soil pH. Interestingly , high nitrogen (N), phosphorus ( P) and potassium ( K) contents were observed in grain soyabeans. These nutrients in grains are not returned to the soil as the grains are sold as a commercial crop. The economic benefits of growing soya beans accrue from the nutrients that remain in the leaves, petioles, stems and shells that are ploughed into the soil during land preparation.

Brucellosis in pastoral and confined livestock: prevention and vaccination

The traditional lifestyle and beliefs of pastoralists and small-scale farmers with confined livestock, together with certain farming environments, create favourable conditions for the spread and transmission of brucellosis. The risks associated with these practices are difficult to control because of a lack of alternatives and simple and/or affordable solutions. Brucellosis affects the health and productivity of livestock as well as that of their owners and caretakers and can have a deep economic impact. The control of brucellosis is likely to be cost effective. Good quantitative information on brucellosis in livestock and the human population is essential for demonstrating the benefits of intervention. Effective vaccines for the control of brucellosis in cattle and small ruminants are available and cheap, and in high-risk areas there is an urgent need to start large-scale vaccination programmes. Risks for the spread and transmission of brucellosis, such as the migration of herds with frequent contacts with other herds at common feeding grounds and near water sources, are inherent in the way of life of pastoralists. Such risks may need to be accepted when developing a control programme. Thus, the control of brucellosis by vaccination is expected to be more effective for confined livestock. Essential to the success of mass vaccination in controlling brucellosis is achieving a high degree of protection of adult livestock in a very short period and vaccinating young stock before natural infection can occur. To reduce the risk of transmission of infection from neighbouring areas where animals are not vaccinated, a region-wide approach is important. Because shepherds and farmers may have very little knowledge of infectious diseases and the consequences of infection, providing disease information and education is important to help them understand the need for control measures. Public health services can also assist in encouraging acceptance of control programmes in livestock by creating awareness of brucellosis as a human disease. To reduce costs, brucellosis control programmes can be combined with other veterinary or public health activities or interventions. An up-to-date livestock census and an effective surveillance system are crucial for the control of brucellosis, as the disease may quickly re-emerge from remaining foci of infection. Although test and slaughter may be an option for the management of remaining or re-emerging foci of infection, such a strategy is frequently not an option because of the cost.

Environmental sampling for evaluating verotoxigenic Escherichia coli O157

Verotoxigenic Escherichia coli O157:H7 is a zoonotic bacterial pathogen capable of causing severe disease in human beings. Cattle are considered to be the main reservoir of the bacterium. The objective of the current study was to compare environmental sampling (consisting of dust, overshoe, and pooled pat samples) with pooled, individual fecal sampling for determining the cattle herd status under field conditions in naturally infected dairy herds. Thirty-one dairy cattle farms in Sweden, where verotoxigenic E. coli O157:H7 had been previously detected, were visited. On each farm, dust, overshoe, and pooled pat sampling were performed in each of 3 different age categories: calves, young stock, and adults. In addition, up to 140 individual fecal samples were collected and analyzed as pooled samples. In total, 3,763 individual fecal and 270 environmental samples were collected and analyzed for the presence of verotoxigenic E. coli O157:H7. Overshoe sampling, alone or in combination with dust and pooled pat sampling, correctly classified 20 of the 24 (0.83, 95% CI: 0.63-0.95) herds detected with at least 1 positive pool. On 1 farm, a dust sample was positive although all other samples were negative. In 6 of the 31 farms, the bacteria could not be detected in any of the individual fecal samples or in the environmental samples. The results establish that environmental sampling is a reliable method for identifying cattle herds with animals shedding verotoxigenic E. coli O157:H7.

Within-herd prevalence ofSalmonellaDublin in endemically infected dairy herds

In this study within-herd prevalence of Salmonella Dublin was investigated in three age groups (calves, young stock, adult cows) during five herd visits at 3-month intervals of 14 endemically infected dairy herds. A total of 10162 paired faecal cultures and antibody measurements were used to calculate the age and temporal dynamics of seroprevalence and prevalence of positive faecal cultures. Faecal culture-positive prevalence was generally low. It was highest (5.4%) in calves during December to February. Seroprevalence varied from 0% to 70% between herds, but was generally more stable in young stock and adult cows than in calves. Hierarchical mixed-model results showed that seroprevalence was associated with the bacteriological status in calves and cows, but not in young stock. These results can be used to develop and validate theoretical infection dynamics models and to design effective control programmes for Salmonella Dublin in dairy herds.

Analysis of morbidity and mortality rates in bovine in Himachal Pradesh

Aim: The aim of the present study was to determine the morbidity and mortality rates of Bovine population present in Himachal Pradesh, India. In addition, the effect of age, sex, environmental conditions, management practices and other factors on the morbidity and mortality rate was also analyzed using suitable statistical techniques. Materials and Methods: Himachal Pradesh has been divided into four agro-climatic zones. Taking each agroclimatic zone as stratum, five veterinary hospitals from zone 1, two veterinary hospitals each from zone 2 and zone 3 and three veterinary hospitals from zone 4, were selected randomly. Three villages were selected from the villages covered by each veterinary hospital by simple random sampling without replacement scheme. A total of 15 livestock owners were selected from each selected village and thus a total 540 livestock owners constitute the ultimate sample from thirty six villages and twelve veterinary hospitals for the study. The sampling scheme followed in the present study is Stratified three-stage random sampling. Age, sex, season and cause wise morbidity and mortality data were collected from all selected bovine owners in the state for period of one year (January 2011 to December 2011). Results: The Overall analysis of morbidity rate in bovine was 31.22%. Among the three age groups, adults' bovine showed highest morbidity rate 35.73%, followed by calves 26.98% and young stocks 23.17%. Among the three age groups, calves had highest morbidity rate 16.09% due to poor management problems followed by adults 12.15% cases of reproductive problems. The overall mortality rate in bovine was found 9.14%. The overall analysis of mortality in bovine with respect to age revealed significance (p<0.01) difference between age and sex. Amongst the three age groups, calves showed highest mortality 21.53% followed by young stocks 9.35% and adults 4.73%. Among the three age groups, calves had highest mortality (16.09%) due to poor management problems followed by 2.48% cases of digestive diseases. Conclusion: Overall bovine morbidity and mortality rate were 31.22% and 9.14%. Major causes of morbidity were reproductive diseases followed by specific diseases and mortality were poor management problems followed by digestive diseases and specific diseases.

HoBi-like viruses

The genus Pestivirus is composed of 4 important pathogens of livestock: Bovine viral diarrhea virus 1 and 2 (BVDV-1 and BVDV-2), Classical swine fever virus (CSFV), and Border disease virus of sheep (BDV). BVDV are major pathogens of cattle, and infection results in significant economic loss worldwide. A new putative pestivirus species, tentatively called "HoBi-like," "BVDV-3," or "atypical pestiviruses," was first identified in Europe in fetal bovine serum (FBS) imported from Brazil. HoBi-like viruses are related to BVDV at the genetic and antigenic levels. Further, the disease caused by these new viruses resembles clinical presentations historically associated with BVDV infection, including growth retardation, reduced milk production, respiratory disease, reduced reproductive performance, and increased mortality among young stock. Current BVDV diagnostic tests may fail to detect HoBi-like viruses or to differentiate between BVDV and HoBi-like viruses. Further, commercial tests for BVDV exposure, based on serological response, do not reliably detect HoBi-like virus exposure, and cross protection against HoBi-like viruses conferred by current BVDV vaccines is likely limited. As many HoBi-like viruses, characterized to date, were isolated from FBS originating from Brazil, it is assumed that the agent is probably widespread in Brazilian herds. Nevertheless, reports of natural infection in Southeast Asia and Europe demonstrate that these viruses are not restricted to South America. Increased demand for FBS has led to widespread distribution of FBS originating in HoBi-like virus endemic regions. The contamination of such FBS with HoBi-like viruses may lead to spread of this virus to other regions.