Young Papua Research Articles

The Examination of the Knowledge Level of Young Papuan Female Athletes about Female Athletes Triad (FAT)

Background: Female Athletes Triad (FAT) is a syndrome characterized by impaired energy availability, menstrual dysfunction, and low bone density. FAT might interfere with the health and performance of young female athletes in training and competition, which causes a decrease in achievement. Research on FAT is still limited in Indonesia, especially on indigenous Papuans. Objectives: To obtain a description of young Papuan female athletes' knowledge of FAT, including the three main components of FAT: danger, impacts, and risk factors for FAT. Methods: The total sample was 61 young female athletes with a convenience sampling technique. The survey method used a questionnaire consisting of questions related to athlete characteristics (age, ethnicity, training duration, and sports) and eight questions about FAT knowledge; it includes the three main components of FAT (osteoporosis, menstrual disorders, eating disorders), dangers and impacts, and the risk factors (age and physical activity). Results: Young Papua female athletes (80.33%) lacked knowledge about FAT. Most athletes (80.33%) had never heard of FAT. Most of the sample failed to identify FAT's three main components and risk factors correctly. Only five athletes (8.20%) correctly answered questions about fracture occurrence. Only six athletes (9.84%) could identify FAT components entirely and correctly, and about 11 (18.30%) answered correctly regarding the risk of excessive physical activity in athletes. Finally, only 23 athletes (37.70%) correctly answered questions about age. Conclusions: Young female Papuan athletes lack knowledge about the FAT components and risk factors.

Culturally relevant reading books for Papua New Guinean children: Their reading rights and preferences

Children have a right both to read and to see their lives mirrored in books. In this study we explored young Papua New Guinean children’s reading preferences of 500 digital books. The books were created as part of a large project aimed at improving elementary (Preparatory to Year 2) children’s literacy skills in Papua New Guinea. Reading materials are scarce in Papua New Guinea and typically offer children windows into other contexts. This was addressed through a collaborative approach with Papua New Guinean and international writers to develop culturally relevant books. Dashboard data from the digital library showing the 25 Most Read Books were collected from 321 girls and 369 boys in 7 pilot schools. The findings indicated that the children preferred fiction books that were culturally specific. There were no statistically significant gender differences in book choice. The findings from this study can help education departments and non-government organisations in the further development of children’s books that will motivate children to read.

Differential impact of malaria control interventions on P. falciparum and P. vivax infections in young Papua New Guinean children

IntroductionAs malaria transmission declines, understanding the differential impact of intensified control on Plasmodium falciparum relative to Plasmodium vivax and identifying key drivers of ongoing transmission is essential to guide future interventions.MethodsThree longitudinal child cohorts were conducted in Papua New Guinea before (2006/2007), during (2008) and after scale-up of control interventions (2013). In each cohort, children aged 1–5 years were actively monitored for infection and illness. Incidence of malaria episodes, molecular force of blood-stage infections (molFOB) and population-averaged prevalence of infections were compared across the cohorts to investigate the impact of intensified control in young children and the key risk factors for malaria infection and illness in 2013.ResultsBetween 2006 and 2008, P. falciparum infection prevalence, molFOB, and clinical malaria episodes reduced by 47%, 59% and 69%, respectively, and a further 49%, 29% and 75% from 2008 to 2013 (prevalence 41.6% to 22.1% to 11.2%; molFOB: 3.4 to 1.4 to 1.0 clones/child/year; clinical episodes incidence rate (IR) 2.6 to 0.8 to IR 0.2 episodes/child/year). P. vivax clinical episodes declined at rates comparable to P. falciparum between 2006, 2008 and 2013 (IR 2.5 to 1.1 to 0.2), while P. vivaxmolFOB (2006, 9.8; 2008, 12.1) and prevalence (2006, 59.6%; 2008, 65.0%) remained high in 2008. However, in 2013, P. vivaxmolFOB (1.2) and prevalence (19.7%) had also substantially declined. In 2013, 89% of P. falciparum and 93% of P. vivax infections were asymptomatic, 62% and 47%, respectively, were sub-microscopic. Area of residence was the major determinant of malaria infection and illness.ConclusionIntensified vector control and routine case management had a differential impact on rates of P. falciparum and P. vivax infections but not clinical malaria episodes in young children. This suggests comparable reductions in new mosquito-derived infections but a delayed impact on P. vivax relapsing infections due to a previously acquired reservoir of hypnozoites. This demonstrates the need to strengthen implementation of P. vivax radical cure to maximise impact of control in co-endemic areas. The high heterogeneity of malaria in 2013 highlights the importance of surveillance and targeted interventions to accelerate towards elimination.

Cost-effectiveness of artemisinin\u2013naphthoquine versus artemether\u2013lumefantrine for the treatment of uncomplicated malaria in Papua New Guinean children

BackgroundA recent randomized trial showed that artemisinin–naphthoquine (AN) was non-inferior to artemether–lumefantrine (AL) for falciparum malaria and superior for vivax malaria in young Papua New Guinean children. The aim of this study was to compare the cost-effectiveness of these two regimens.MethodsAn incremental cost-effectiveness analysis was performed using data from 231 children with Plasmodium falciparum and/or Plasmodium vivax infections in an open-label, randomized, parallel-group trial. Recruited children were randomized 1:1 to receive once daily AN for 3 days with water or twice daily AL for 3 days given with fat. World Health Organisation (WHO) definitions were used to determine clinical/parasitological outcomes. The cost of transport between the home and clinic, plus direct health-care costs, served as a basis for determining each regimen’s incremental cost per incremental treatment success relative to AL by Day 42 and its cost per life year saved.ResultsIn the usual care setting, AN was more effective for the treatment of uncomplicated malaria in children aged 0.5–5.9 years. AL and AN were equally efficacious for the treatment of falciparum malaria, however AN had increased anti-malarial treatment costs per patient of $10.46, compared with AL. AN was the most effective regimen for treatment of vivax malaria, but had increased treatment costs of $14.83 per treatment success compared with AL.ConclusionsWhilst AN has superior overall efficacy for the treatment of uncomplicated malaria in PNG children, AL was the less costly regimen. An indicative extrapolation estimated the cost per life year saved by using AN instead of AL to treat uncomplicated malaria to be $12,165 for girls and $12,469 for boys (discounted), which means AN may not be cost-effective and affordable for PNG at current cost. However, AN may become acceptable should it become WHO prequalified and/or should donated/subsidized drug supply become available.

Plasmodium vivax Reticulocyte Binding Proteins Are Key Targets of Naturally Acquired Immunity in Young Papua New Guinean Children.

BackgroundMajor gaps in our understanding of Plasmodium vivax biology and the acquisition of immunity to this parasite hinder vaccine development. P. vivax merozoites exclusively invade reticulocytes, making parasite proteins that mediate reticulocyte binding and/or invasion potential key vaccine or drug targets. While protein interactions that mediate invasion are still poorly understood, the P. vivax Reticulocyte-Binding Protein family (PvRBP) is thought to be involved in P. vivax restricted host-cell selectivity.Methodology/Principal findingsWe assessed the binding specificity of five members of the PvRBP family (PvRBP1a, PvRBP1b, PvRBP2a, PvRBP2b, PvRBP2-P2 and a non-binding fragment of PvRBP2c) to normocytes or reticulocytes. PvRBP2b was identified as the only reticulocyte-specific binder (P<0.001), whereas the others preferentially bound to normocytes (PvRBP1a/b P≤0.034), or showed comparable binding to both (PvRBP2a/2-P2, P = 0.38). Furthermore, we measured levels of total and IgG subclasses 1, 2, 3 and 4 to the six PvRBPs in a cohort of young Papua New Guinean children, and assessed their relationship with prospective risk of P. vivax malaria. Children had substantial, highly correlated (rho = 0.49–0.82, P<0.001) antibody levels to all six PvRBPs, with dominant IgG1 and IgG3 subclasses. Both total IgG (Incidence Rate Ratio [IRR] 0.63–0.73, P = 0.008–0.041) and IgG1 (IRR 0.56–0.69, P = 0.001–0.035) to PvRBP2b and PvRBP1a were strongly associated with reduced risk of vivax-malaria, independently of age and exposure.Conclusion/SignificanceThese results demonstrate a diversity of erythrocyte-binding phenotypes of PvRBPs, indicating binding to both reticulocyte-specific and normocyte-specific ligands. Our findings provide further insights into the naturally acquired immunity to P. vivax and highlight the importance of PvRBP proteins as targets of naturally acquired humoral immunity. In-depth studies of the role of PvRBPs in P. vivax invasion and functional validation of the role of anti-PvRBP antibodies in clinical immunity against P. vivax are now required to confirm the potential of the reticulocyte-binding PvRBP2b and PvRBP1a as vaccine candidate antigens.

An Antibody Screen of a Plasmodium vivax Antigen Library Identifies Novel Merozoite Proteins Associated with Clinical Protection

BackgroundElimination of Plasmodium vivax malaria would be greatly facilitated by the development of an effective vaccine. A comprehensive and systematic characterization of antibodies to P. vivax antigens in exposed populations is useful in guiding rational vaccine design.Methodology/Principal FindingsIn this study, we investigated antibodies to a large library of P. vivax entire ectodomain merozoite proteins in 2 Asia-Pacific populations, analysing the relationship of antibody levels with markers of current and cumulative malaria exposure, and socioeconomic and clinical indicators. 29 antigenic targets of natural immunity were identified. Of these, 12 highly-immunogenic proteins were strongly associated with age and thus cumulative lifetime exposure in Solomon Islanders (P<0.001–0.027). A subset of 6 proteins, selected on the basis of immunogenicity and expression levels, were used to examine antibody levels in plasma samples from a population of young Papua New Guinean children with well-characterized individual differences in exposure. This analysis identified a strong association between reduced risk of clinical disease and antibody levels to P12, P41, and a novel hypothetical protein that has not previously been studied, PVX_081550 (IRR 0.46–0.74; P<0.001–0.041).Conclusion/SignificanceThese data emphasize the benefits of an unbiased screening approach in identifying novel vaccine candidate antigens. Functional studies are now required to establish whether PVX_081550 is a key component of the naturally-acquired protective immune response, a biomarker of immune status, or both.

Working Out What to Wear in Papua New Guinea: The Politics of Fashion in Stella

In this article I discuss Stella , a new women’s magazine in Papua New Guinea. Noting that Stella provides a context for celebrating new Pacific femininities, I argue that the magazine’s representations of fashion are a crucial way in which this refiguring of the feminine occurs. Discussing the significance of what women wear through reference to anthropological insights about the relationship between clothing, gender, and status, I suggest that in PNG, clothing is a focal point of cultural debate. Through its playful politics, Stella intervenes in this debate, thus smuggling a deeply political message between its glossy pages. In addition, I demonstrate that through its selective aestheticization of the “local” and the “traditional,” the magazine acknowledges educated, young Papua New Guinean women’s desire to reconfigure “culture” in more inclusive ways.

Naturally Acquired Immune Responses to P. vivax Merozoite Surface Protein 3α and Merozoite Surface Protein 9 Are Associated with Reduced Risk of P. vivax Malaria in Young Papua New Guinean Children

Background Plasmodium vivax is the most geographically widespread human malaria parasite. Cohort studies in Papua New Guinea have identified a rapid onset of immunity against vivax-malaria in children living in highly endemic areas. Although numerous P. vivax merozoite antigens are targets of naturally acquired antibodies, the role of many of these antibodies in protective immunity is yet unknown.Methodology/Principal FindingsIn a cohort of children aged 1–3 years, antibodies to different regions of Merozoite Surface Protein 3α (PvMSP3α) and Merozoite Surface Protein 9 (PvMSP9) were measured and related to prospective risk of P. vivax malaria during 16 months of active follow-up. Overall, there was a low prevalence of antibodies to PvMSP3α and PvMSP9 proteins (9–65%). Antibodies to the PvMSP3α N-terminal, Block I and Block II regions increased significantly with age while antibodies to the PvMSP3α Block I and PvMSP9 N-terminal regions were positively associated with concurrent P. vivax infection. Independent of exposure (defined as the number of genetically distinct blood-stage infection acquired over time (molFOB)) and age, antibodies specific to both PvMSP3α Block II (adjusted incidence ratio (aIRR) = 0.59, p = 0.011) and PvMSP9 N-terminus (aIRR = 0.68, p = 0.035) were associated with protection against clinical P. vivax malaria. This protection was most pronounced against high-density infections. For PvMSP3α Block II, the effect was stronger with higher levels of antibodies.ConclusionsThese results indicate that PvMSP3α Block II and PvMSP9 N-terminus should be further investigated for their potential as P. vivax vaccine antigens. Controlling for molFOB assures that the observed associations are not confounded by individual differences in exposure.

Relapses Contribute Significantly to the Risk of Plasmodium vivax Infection and Disease in Papua New Guinean Children 1–5 Years of Age

Plasmodium vivax forms long-lasting hypnozoites in the liver. How much they contribute to the burden of P. vivax malaria in children living in highly endemic areas is unknown. In this study, 433 Papua New Guinean children aged 1-5 years were Randomized to receive artesunate (7 days) plus primaquine (14 days), artesunate alone or no treatment and followed up actively for recurrent Plasmodium infections and disease for 40 weeks. Treatment with artesunate-primaquine reduced the risk of P. vivax episodes by 28% (P = .042) and 33% (P = .015) compared with the artesunate and control arms, respectively. A significant reduction was observed only in the first 3 months of follow-up (artesunate-primaquine vs control, -58% [P = .004]; artesunate-primaquine vs artesunate, -49% [P = .031]) with little difference thereafter. Primaquine treatment also reduced the risk of quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction- and light microscopy-positive P. vivax reinfections by 44% (P < .001) and 67% (P < .001), respectively. Whereas primaquine treatment did not change the risk of reinfection with Plasmodium falciparum, fewer P. falciparum clinical episodes were observed in the artesunate-primaquine arm. Hypnozoites are an important source of P. vivax infection and contribute substantially to the high burden of P. vivax disease observed in young Papua New Guinean children. Even in highly endemic areas with a high risk of reinfection, antihypnozoite treatment should be given to all cases with parasitologically confirmed P. vivax infections.

Rapid Diagnostic Test–Based Management of Malaria: An Effectiveness Study in Papua New Guinean Infants With Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax Malaria

In malaria-endemic areas it is recommended that febrile children be tested for malaria by rapid diagnostic test (RDT) or blood slide (BS) and receive effective malaria treatment only if results are positive. However, RDTs are known to perform less well for Plasmodium vivax. We evaluated the safety of withholding antimalarial drugs from young Papua New Guinean children with negative RDT results in areas with high levels of both Plasmodium falciparum and P. vivax infections. Longitudinal prospective study of children aged 3-27 months visiting outpatient clinics for fever. RDT was administered at first visit. RDT and microscopy were performed if children returned because of persistent symptoms. Outcomes were rates of reattendance and occurrence of severe illnesses. Of 5670 febrile episodes, 3942 (70%) involved a negative RDT result. In 133 cases (3.4%), the children reattended the clinic within 7 days for fever, of whom 29 (0.7%) were parasitemic by RDT or microscopy. Of children who reattended, 24 (0.7%) presented with a severe illness: 2 had lower respiratory tract infections (LRTIs) with low-density P. vivax on BS; 2 received a diagnosis of P. vivax malaria on the basis of RDT but BSs were negative; 16 had LRTIs; 3 had alternative diagnoses. Of these 24, 22 were cured at day 28. Two children died of illnesses other than malaria and were RDT and BS negative at the initial and subsequent visits. Treatment for malaria based on RDT results is safe and feasible even in infants living in areas with moderate to high endemicity for both P. falciparum and P. vivax infections.

“When the road is full of potholes, I wonder why they are bringing condoms?” Social spaces for understanding young Papua New Guineans' health-related knowledge and health-promoting action

As in many other parts of the world, young people in Papua New Guinea (PNG) are considered particularly vulnerable to HIV infection. Young Papua New Guineans' understanding of health and HIV form the basis of their interactions with HIV-prevention programmes, yet literature documenting their views is limited. Participatory research was conducted with 31 youth in two different settings in the Highlands of PNG to analyse their perceptions of factors influencing young people's health in a local context. The participants perceived social and structural factors to have a dominant influence on their health outcomes, in contrast to prevention programmes' focus on individuals. Youth perceived HIV to be less pressing than other everyday health concerns not currently addressed by national programmes, with their resultant frustration undermining the potential of existing HIV-prevention interventions. The young participants' experience of the social spaces developed through Photovoice, the research approach used, demonstrates the potential and limitations of participatory initiatives to support young people's actions to reduce their vulnerability to poor health outcomes. Findings point to the importance of youth-focused intervention programmes engaging influential adults in a community, and supporting “in-between” spaces where young people and community leaders can connect in order to affect the health-related contexts in which young people live.

Differential Patterns of Infection and Disease with P. falciparum and P. vivax in Young Papua New Guinean Children

BackgroundWhere P. vivax and P. falciparum occur in the same population, the peak burden of P. vivax infection and illness is often concentrated in younger age groups. Experiences from malaria therapy patients indicate that immunity is acquired faster to P. vivax than to P. falciparum challenge. There is however little prospective data on the comparative risk of infection and disease from both species in young children living in co-endemic areas.Methodology/Principal FindingsA cohort of 264 Papua New Guinean children aged 1-3 years (at enrolment) were actively followed-up for Plasmodium infection and febrile illness for 16 months. Infection status was determined by light microscopy and PCR every 8 weeks and at each febrile episode. A generalised estimating equation (GEE) approach was used to analyse both prevalence of infection and incidence of clinical episodes. A more pronounced rise in prevalence of P. falciparum compared to P. vivax infection was evident with increasing age. Although the overall incidence of clinical episodes was comparable (P. falciparum: 2.56, P. vivax 2.46 episodes / child / yr), P. falciparum and P. vivax infectious episodes showed strong but opposing age trends: P. falciparum incidence increased until the age of 30 months with little change thereafter, but incidence of P. vivax decreased significantly with age throughout the entire age range. For P. falciparum, both prevalence and incidence of P. falciparum showed marked seasonality, whereas only P. vivax incidence but not prevalence decreased in the dry season.Conclusions/SignificanceUnder high, perennial exposure, children in PNG begin acquiring significant clinical immunity, characterized by an increasing ability to control parasite densities below the pyrogenic threshold to P. vivax, but not to P. falciparum, in the 2nd and 3rd year of life. The ability to relapse from long-lasting liver-stages restricts the seasonal variation in prevalence of P. vivax infections.

Early childhood care and education in a changing world: building on village life in Papua New Guinea

In Papua New Guinea, the early childhood care and education of young children is largely a parental and community responsibility. Like many other village‐based societies, including those found throughout Africa, Asia and the South Pacific, more than 80% of Papua New Guinean children grow up in subsistence farming and fishing tribal villages. In these settings, children participate in work and village activities and gradually develop the skills and knowledge they need to become competent adult members of their community. In providing a snapshot of the lives of two young Papua New Guinean children, this paper is a contribution to the ongoing discussion about effective early childhood care and education (ECCE) programmes in developing nations. The story of Taita and Oini is used to illustrate how the events and settings that are part of children’s daily lives need to be considered and understood before ECCE interventions are attempted or policy developed.

Modernity without romance? Masculinity and desire in courtship stories told by young papua new guinean men

ABSTRACTRomance has been theoretically associated with the estrangements created by modern individualism. As demonstrated in courtship stories told by young men from the Murik Lakes in Papua New Guinea, the relationship of Murik culture to modernity has not resulted in narratives that privilege a construction of courtship in which the self merges with the beloved. Desire is not defined in terms of romantic love but is set amid events that are scrupulously fixed in the foregrounds of specific times and exact locations. In these tales, representations of personhood are organized by a Homeric chronotope rather than by a romantic one. Although masculinity in Murik culture has undergone important transformations in the 20th century, its sociology has not given way to the discourse of modern individualism.

High rates of Chlamydia trachomatis infections in young Papua New Guinean infants.

Determine the importance of Chlamydia trachomatis in the etiology of severe infection in young Papua New Guinean infants. Between March, 1991, and April, 1993, children <3 months old were recruited as outpatients at Goroka Base Hospital, Papua New Guinea, as part of a multicenter study in four developing countries. Children with predefined inclusion criteria were enrolled. C. trachomatis was identified by direct fluorescent antibody staining in nasopharyngeal aspirates (NPAs) collected from children with and without signs of severe disease and eye swabs from children with and without conjunctivitis. Two to three radiologists read chest radiographs without knowledge of clinical and laboratory findings. Of 3280 outpatients seen 2168 enrolled, 955 NPAs were tested for C. trachomatis and 549 chest radiographs were read. Of 210 eye swabs from children with conjunctivitis 57% were positive for C. trachomatis compared with 8% from 167 children with no conjunctivitis. The prevalence of C. trachomatis in NPAs was 9% in asymptomatic children and 18 and 33% in children with nonsevere or severe pneumonia, respectively. C. trachomatis in NPAs was strongly associated with clinically severe pneumonia [odds ratio (OR), 2.91], reduced arterial oxygen saturation (OR 2.58) and radiographic evidence of pneumonia (OR 5.84) and was also associated with pneumococcal bacteremia (OR 3.48). In Papua New Guinea Chlamydia must be considered as a cause when treating pneumonia in infants, and effective treatment and prevention of sexually transmitted diseases are urgently needed for a number of reasons, including the need to curb high rates of chlamydial infection in women and infants.

Bacterial and viral etiology of severe infection in children less than three months old in the highlands of Papua New Guinea.

Determine the bacterial and viral etiology of severe infection in young Papua New Guinean infants as part of a multicenter study in four developing countries aimed at improving case management guidelines. Between March, 1991, and April, 1993, children aged <3 months were recruited at the outpatient department of Goroka Base Hospital, Papua New Guinea (PNG). Children with pre-defined inclusion criteria were enrolled, a history was taken and clinical examination was performed. Blood and urine were collected from children with signs suggestive of severe disease together with eye, umbilical and pernasal swabs as appropriate. Nasopharyngeal aspirates (NPAs) were collected from children with and without signs of severe disease for identification of viruses and Chlamydia trachomatis by direct fluorescent antibody staining. 3280 infants were triaged and 2168 enrolled, among whom 968 had signs suggestive of severe disease. Group A Streptococcus (Streptococcus pyogenes) and Staphylococcus aureus were the most important bacterial pathogens isolated from children < 1 month old with severe infections, and Streptococcus pneumoniae, S. pyogenes and Staphylococcus aureus were most important in older children. Of 292 eye swabs 19 (7%) grew Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Of 116 umbilical swabs 51 (44%) grew S. pyogenes and 45 (39%) grew Staphylococcus aureus. Respiratory syncytial virus was the most important viral cause of acute lower respiratory infection. S. pyogenes, S. pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus are important causes of severe infection in young children in the PNG highlands. It is necessary to improve access to clean water, promote hand-washing in the hospital and at home and investigate further the use of maternal immunization for the prevention of severe disease in young infants.

Girls' Access to Education in a Developing Country

Papua New Guinea is a developing country which gained its independence from Australia in 1975. Many of its educational structures inherited from the time of the early missions and the colonial administration influence the practices of today. Women have not advanced in the new country as far as was prophesied in the early 1970s leading up to Independence. Although the current poor economic conditions have some effect on women's advancement, the difficulties they face in even obtaining a basic education form one of the major factors which hinder their progress. This paper describes a number of the barriers which prevent girls from accessing education at every level, from gaining enrolment in the first year of school to positioning themselves for university entry. Distance education provides one of the few "second chances" that young Papua New Guineans can gain, provided they can afford the fees and engage with the somewhat independent study required for success.

Immunoglobulin G antibody responses to polyvalent pneumococcal vaccine in children in the highlands of Papua New Guinea.

The immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibody responses to a pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine were examined for 480 children aged 3 months to 5 years and living in Tari, Southern Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea. Antipneumococcal IgG to the seven serotypes most frequently causing invasive disease (types 2, 5, 6B, 7F, 14, 19F, and 23F) was measured by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in serum collected before vaccination and 1 and 6 months after vaccination. Prevaccination antibody levels fell rapidly after 3 months of age and remained low throughout the first 2 years of life. One month after vaccination, geometric mean titers of antipneumococcal IgG to serotypes 2, 7F, 23F, and 5 were at least twice those of antibodies in nonvaccinated children of the same age from the ages of 5, 6, 9, and 12 months onwards, respectively; postvaccination antibody responses to serotypes 6B, 14, and 19F rose gradually during the second year of life. Elevated antibody titers to serotypes 2 and 7F were maintained 6 months after vaccination. Thus, young Papua New Guinean children are capable of mounting a good immune response to some pneumococcal capsular polysaccharides from a young age, and the antibody responses to capsular polysaccharides are consistent with studies in developed countries. However, in Papua New Guinea, the serogroup distribution of invasive disease matches the immunogenic components of the pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine more closely than in developed countries, a fact which helps to explain the results of controlled trials in Papua New Guinea, in which this vaccine prevented death and severe morbidity from pneumonia in young children.

Plasma glucose and insulin responses in young Papua New Guineans (aged 10–19 years)

A study of rural and periurban children aged 10–19 years in the Tolai population of Papua New Guinea has demonstrated a higher average plasma glucose concentration and relative hyperinsulinaemia after an oral glucose challenge in the periurban group. The findings could not be explained by differences in age or adiposity. In the rural children, plasma insulin concentration remained consistently low throughout the range of glucose tolerance, indicating a high degree of insulin sensitivity. In the periurban children there was a marked increase in plasma insulin concentration with increasing plasma glucose concentration, possibly suggesting the development of insulin resistance, or an antecedent state, and incipient glucoseintolerance. In view of the potential public health implications of these findings, further ecological studies of insulin response in children and adolescents would appear warranted. These should include appropriate measures of pubertal development, which is a possible confounding factor not addressed in the present study, as well as addressing the role of nutritional factors.