Young African American Mothers Research Articles

The Cumulative Influence of Perceived Discrimination, Stress, and Coping Responses on Symptoms of Depression Among Young African American Mothers.

African American women have an elevated risk for experiencing depressive symptoms, and discrimination, stress, and coping contribute to symptoms of depression. We aimed to examine the associations between discrimination, stress, and coping on symptoms of depression among young African American mothers. In this retrospective study, we utilized a hierarchical linear regression to explore the effects of perceived racial discrimination, stress, and general and discrimination-related coping responses on depressive symptoms in a sample of African American mothers (N = 250). The data were drawn from the Intergenerational Impact of Genetic and Psychological Factors on Blood Pressure study (InterGEN), a study conducted between 2014 and 2019 and based in Connecticut. After accounting for maternal age, level of education, and income, greater perceived racial discrimination (p = .03), higher levels of stress (p < .001), greater engagement in avoidance coping (p < .001), and use of passive coping responses to discrimination (p = .04) were uniquely associated with increased depressive symptoms. Other forms of coping, specifically, problem-solving and support seeking, did not appear to influence depressive symptoms in this sample. The findings highlight the negative impact of discrimination, heightened stress, and maladaptive coping on the emotional health of young African American mothers.

Associations between social determinants of health, perceived discrimination, and body mass index on symptoms of depression among young African American mothers

PurposeThe association between symptoms of depression and risks for cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains equivocal for African American (AA) mothers. We examined the association between social determinants of health (perceived discrimination), and cardiovascular risk (BMI) on symptoms of depression in a sample of young AA mothers. MethodsSecondary data from 219 adult AA mothers between the ages of 21 and 46 with an average BMI of 29.8 and yearly family income of $14,999 were analyzed using a latent growth model that evaluated four time points to assess changes in symptoms of depression. ResultsInitial BMI was significantly associated with initial symptoms of depression (b = 0.12, p = .019). Perceived discrimination (unfair treatment) was associated with higher initial symptoms of depression (b = 1.14, p = .017). ConclusionThe findings suggest that elevated BMI and perceived discrimination are associated with higher reported symptoms of depression among young, socioeconomically disadvantaged AA mothers. These results advance the scientific understanding of young AA mothers' risk for symptoms of depression and CVD by elucidating the impact of perceived discrimination and social experiences on mental health. Further studies of SDoH and CVD risk factors and perceived racism and depression are needed to shed light on the long-term mental health impact on AA mothers and their children.

Addressing Intergenerational Trauma With an Innovative Instrument and Process.

Parent-child relationships have been researched in many ways. This article describes a qualitative study using the concept of reflective functioning (defined by Slade as the parent's capacity to hold and reflect upon her own and her child's internal mental experience) as a framework. The study focused on understanding the experiences of early childhood adversities, social supports, and the reflective functioning capacity of 11 young adult African American mothers and their children in urban and suburban areas of Minnesota. Findings included that the participants did not perceive adversities as bad, but as part of a daily norm; they demonstrated that they have social support and know how to access it; and they showed the ability to reflect on their children's emotions and experiences as well as the parent-child relationship. Participants talked about transmitting good things to their children while simultaneously protecting them from negative experiences. Thus, parents were able to change patterns that could affect their children's well-being.

Parenting Profiles of Young Low-income African American and Latina Mothers and Infant Socioemotional Development

SYNOPSISObjective. Parenting styles are complex and have been well studied in parents of children and adolescents; however, less is known about parenting styles in early infancy, especially among ethnic minority groups. This study examines empirically identifiable profiles of early parenting that are associated with later infant socioemotional development. Design. 239 young, low-income, African American (54.8%) and Latina (45.2%) mothers were videorecorded with their 3-month-old infants. At 13-months, mothers reported on their infants’ socioemotional development. Results. Person-oriented latent class analysis was used to identify four parenting styles: Sensitive/Stimulating (25%), Warm/Unstimulating (37%), Engaged/Tough (22%), and Disengaged (16%). The most common style among African American mothers was Engaged/Tough (34.4%), and the most prevalent style among Latina mothers was Warm/Unstimulating (48.2%). Infants of Warm/Unstimulating mothers had the lowest reported levels of problem behavior at 13 months, whereas infants of Sensitive/Stimulating mothers had the highest reported mastery motivation. Infants of Disengaged mothers had the highest reported levels of internalizing and total problem behavior and the lowest reported mastery motivation. Conclusions. Qualitatively distinct styles of early parenting link to different infant socioemotional outcomes in ways not fully captured by single dimensions of parenting. Practitioners working with young mothers from diverse ethnic backgrounds may be more effective at promoting positive parenting and infant development if they understand and can build on the strengths of certain parenting styles.

Examining the inter-correlated effects of low income, life stress, and race on birth outcomes: A representative state study

ABSTRACTProgramming of the stress response system during gestation has lifelong effects that put the infant at risk for multiple stress-related pathologies. Populations most vulnerable to prenatal stress are African-Americans and individuals of low socioeconomic status. The Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS) research project, a collaboration between the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and individual state health departments, was employed for this study. Tennessee data from 2009 were compiled from individual birth certificates and PRAMS questionnaire responses to examine the influence of maternal stressors, race and low income on birth outcomes. The number of stressors was only a significant predictor of having an infant small for gestational age when moderated by Medicaid status. Medicaid status was a positive predictor of both problematic birth and preterm delivery, but did not predict small or large for gestational age. The relationship between race and birth outcomes overall was moderated by age, with young African-American mothers less likely than European-Americans and older African-American mothers to have adverse birth outcomes.

Alcohol Use Problems and Sexual Risk Among Young Adult African American Mothers.

Studies have documented high levels of alcohol use and sexual risk among young mothers. We examined parenting satisfaction and self-efficacy in relation to alcohol use problems and sexual risk among 346 young African American women enrolled in an HIV prevention trial, 41 % (n = 141) of whom were mothers. Among mothers, greater parenting satisfaction was associated with a reduced likelihood of problematic alcohol use, having multiple sex partners, and testing positive for Trichomonas vaginalis. Relative to non-parenting women, mothers reported lower condom use. Compared to non-parenting women, mothers with the highest parenting satisfaction reported fewer alcohol use problems; mothers with the lowest parenting satisfaction reported lower condom use and were more likely to have multiple partners and test positive for T. vaginalis. Parenting self-efficacy was not associated with the outcomes examined. Future research investigating relationships between parenting satisfaction, alcohol use and sexual risk may be useful for improving multiple maternal health outcomes.

122. Transitions to Parenthood: Maternal Adjustment Sexually Transmitted Infection Risk Among Young African American Mothers

Purpose: Studies show high rates of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) among adolescent mothers. Although the transition to parenthood may be particularly difficult for adolescents, few studies have examined maternal adjustment in relation to STI risk among young mothers. The purpose of this study was to examine associations between parenting self-efficacy and parenting satisfaction and STI risk among young African American mothers. Methods: The analytic sample included 140 mothers participating in an HIV/STI prevention trial for young African American women (18-24 years) who use alcohol. Prior to randomization, participants provided baseline data via audio computer-assisted self-interviews and vaginal swab specimens assayed for Trichomonas vaginalis, Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae using DNA amplification. Parenting self-efficacy was measured using a 7-item scale, with higher scores indicating greater self-efficacy. Parenting satisfaction was measured using a 6-item scale, with higher scores indicating greater satisfaction. Unadjusted and adjusted logistic models examined associations between parenting self-efficacy and parenting satisfaction and sexual risk behavior in the past 3months (had multiple sexual partners; traded sex drugs, money, food, or a place to stay; drank alcohol prior to sex) and STI prevalence. Adjusted models controlled for mother’s age at first child’s birth ( 17 years, 18-19 years, 20-24 years), age of her youngest child (years), and depressive symptomology, as measured by the 8-item Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). Results: Themajority of the sample, 55% (n1⁄477), reported drinking alcohol 2-4 timespermonth or less. Age atfirst child’s birthwas<18 for 32% (n1⁄445) and 18-19 for 39% (n1⁄455). Age of the youngest child was<1 year for 31% (n1⁄444) and 1-2 years for 40% (n1⁄457). Each unit increase in parenting satisfaction score was associated with a significantly decreased likelihood of being infectedwith T. vaginalis (AOR: 0.94, 95% CI:0.88, 1.00, p1⁄40.041). No other measures of maternal adjustment were significantly associated with the outcomes examined. Conclusions: Greater parenting satisfaction was associated with reduced T. vaginalis prevalence among young African American mothers. Additional research on factors associated with parenting satisfaction and the nature of relationships between parenting satisfaction and STI risk among adolescent and young adult mothers may be useful for improving the health of young mothers and their families. Sources of Support: This work was supported by the National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) grant number 5R01AA018096 to the senior author. Andrea Swartzendruber was supported by NIAAA grant number F32 AA022058. Jessica M. Sales was supported by the National Institute of Mental Health grant number K01 MH085506.

African American Mothers' Self-Described Discipline Strategies With Young Children in 1992 and 2012

In this qualitative descriptive study, 30 young, unmarried, low-income African American mothers in Memphis, TN, were interviewed in 2011-2012 about their discipline strategies with their 12- to 19-month-old children. Using content analyses, their strategies were described and compared with those from a similar sample in 1992. Findings suggest both continuity and change during that 20-year period. More mothers in 2011-2012 described the use of distraction and time out, suggesting a wider variety of strategies than were used in 1992. These findings may help clinicians to better understand disciplinary methods in young low-income African American mothers such as these in Memphis. Approaching mothers in a respectful and culturally sensitive manner will help them focus on effective, developmentally appropriate strategies consistent with their own parenting goals.

Breastfeeding and Complementary Food: Randomized Trial of Community Doula Home Visiting

Despite recent efforts to increase breastfeeding, young African American mothers continue to breastfeed at low rates, and commonly introduce complementary foods earlier than recommended. This study examines the effects of a community doula home visiting intervention on infant feeding practices among young mothers. Low-income, African American mothers (n = 248) under age 22 years participated in a randomized trial of a community doula intervention. Intervention-group mothers received services from paraprofessional doulas: specialized home visitors trained as childbirth educators and lactation counselors. Doulas provided home visits from pregnancy through 3 months postpartum, and support during childbirth. Control-group mothers received usual prenatal care. Data were obtained from medical records and maternal interviews at birth and 4 months postpartum. Intent-to-treat analyses showed that doula-group mothers attempted breastfeeding at a higher rate than control-group mothers (64% vs 50%; P = .02) and were more likely to breastfeed longer than 6 weeks (29% vs 17%; P = .04), although few mothers still breastfed at 4 months. The intervention also impacted mothers' cereal/solid food introduction (P = .008): fewer doula-group mothers introduced complementary foods before 6 weeks of age (6% vs 18%), while more waited until at least 4 months (21% vs 13%) compared with control-group mothers. Community doulas may be effective in helping young mothers meet breastfeeding and healthy feeding guidelines. The intervention's success may lie in the relationship that develops between doula and mother based on shared cultural background and months of prenatal home visiting, and the doula's presence at the birth, where she supports early breastfeeding experiences.

Adolescence and beyond: family processes and development

Introduction to the Volume. Patricia K. Kerig and Marc S. Schulz Section I. SELF-DEVELOPMENT AND REGULATORY PROCESSES Introduction to Section I Chapter 1. Regulating Emotion in Adolescence: A Cognitive-Mediational Conceptualization, Marc S. Schulz and Richard S. Lazarus Chapter 2. Risk and Protective Factors for Suicidality during the Transition to Adulthood: Parenting, Self-Regulatory Processes, and Successful Resolution of Stage-Salient Tasks, Daria Boeninger and Rand D. Conger Chapter 3. The Status of Identity: Developments in Identity Status Research, Jane Kroger Section II. FRIENDSHIP AND INTIMATE RELATIONSHIPS Introduction to Section II Chapter 4. The Quality of Friendships during Adolescence: Patterns across Context, Culture, and Age, Niobe Way and Lisa R. Silverman Chapter 5. The Intergenerational Transmission of Adolescent Romantic Relationships, Shmuel Shulman, Miri Scharf, and Lital Shachar-Shapira Chapter 6. Autonomy with Connection: Influences of Parental Psychological Control on Mutuality in Emerging Adults' Close Relationships, Patricia K. Kerig, Julie A. Swanson, and Rose Marie Ward Section III. SHIFTS IN FAMILY ROLES AND RELATIONSHIPS Introduction to Section III Chapter 7. Sociocultural Perspectives on Adolescent Autonomy, Kathleen Boykin McElhaney and Joseph P. Allen Chapter 8. Mama, I'm a Person, Too!: Individuation and Young African-American Mothers' Parenting Competence, Laura D. Pittman, Lauren S. Wakschlag, P. Lindsay Chase-Lansdale, and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn Chapter 9. Young Fathers and the Transition to Parenthood: An Interpersonal Analysis of Paternal Outcomes, Paul Florsheim and David R. Moore Section IV. LIFE EVENTS AND CHALLENGING CONTEXTS Introduction to Section IV Chapter 10. Exceptional Outcomes: Using Narratives and Family Observations to Understand Resilience, Stuart T. Hauser, Joseph P. Allen, and Marc S. Schulz Chapter 11. Sexual-minority Identity Development in the Family Context, Lisa M. Diamond, Molly R. Butterworth, and Kendrick Allen Chapter 12. Resilience and Vulnerability of Mexican Origin Youth and their Families: A Test of a Culturally-Informed Model of Family Economic Stress, Rand D. Conger, Hairong Song, Gary D. Stockdale, Emilio Ferrer, Keith F. Widaman, and Ana M. Cauce Chapter 13. Psychiatric hospitalization: The utility of using archival records to understand the lives of adolescent patients, Karin M. Best and Stuart T. Hauser Conclusion. Looking Beyond Adolescence: Translating Basic Research into Clinical Practice, Patricia K. Kerig and Marc S. Schulz

Teen Motherhood and Pregnancy Prototypes: The Role of Social Context in Changing Young African American Mothers’ Risk Images and Contraceptive Expectations

Despite the declining rate of teen pregnancies in the United States, academic and public health experts have expressed concern over the still relatively high rate of rapid repeat pregnancies among adolescents, particularly among minority youth. Using a sample of over 300 African American female adolescents, the current study used insights from the prototype/willingness model of adolescent risk behavior to explore this risk. More specifically, it assessed the relationship between entry into unwed motherhood during mid-to-late adolescence and changes in prototypes of unmarried pregnant teens. Further, it explored the extent to which these changing prototypes accounted for young mothers' later contraceptive expectations. We tested the possibility that social images were affected not only by personal experience (the birth of a child) but also by the family and community context in which this experience took place. The findings show that the early entrance into teen motherhood was associated with a shift toward more favorable prototypes of unwed pregnant teens, but that this was only the case for young mothers in disadvantaged contexts. Given this, prototype changes helped to explain the link between teen motherhood and contraceptive expectations only for those in disadvantaged contexts. We discuss these findings in terms of their practical and theoretical implications.

Do Human and Social Capital Protect Young African American Mothers From Depression Associated With Ethnic Discrimination and Violence Exposure?

Young minority mothers are particularly vulnerable to depression associated with community-level or contextual stressors such as violence exposure and ethnic discrimination. This study explores whether human and social capital act as buffers of the associations between such stressors and maternal depression. Among a sample of 230 urban, African American mothers, who were teenagers when their preschool-age children were born, both being a victim of violence and experiencing ethnic discrimination predicted increased depressive symptoms, and higher educational attainment predicted fewer symptoms. Ethnic identity moderated the association between witnessed violence and maternal depression, and community cohesion moderated the association between ethnic discrimination and depression. Social support protected against depressive symptoms associated with witnessed violence but seemingly exacerbated depression associated with victimization. The specific roles that forms of human and social capital play in moderating the effects of contextual stressors suggest the need for nuanced programmatic efforts to reduce maternal depression among young African American mothers living in violence-prone, urban neighborhoods.

Maternal Distress Explains the Relationship of Young African American Mothers’ Violence Exposure With Their Preschoolers’ Behavior

Adolescent mothers and their children are particularly susceptible to witnessing or directly experiencing violence. Such violence exposure predicts maternal distress, parenting, and child behavior problems. The current study examined how mothers' depressive symptoms, aggression, harsh disciplinary practices, and home environment independently explain the association between mothers' violence exposure and children's externalizing and internalizing behavior, controlling for their children's violence exposure. Data were collected from 230 African American mothers living in Washington, DC who gave birth as adolescents and whose children were 3 to 5 years old. Path analysis revealed that the effect of mothers' experienced violence on children's externalizing and internalizing behavior was mediated by mothers' depressive symptoms and aggression. However, neither harsh discipline nor stimulation in the home environment acted as significant mediators, and there were no direct or indirect effects of mothers' witnessed violence on child behavior. This study builds on previous work by identifying an association between maternal violence exposure and children's behavior, independent of children's own violence exposure that is explained by mothers' increased distress but not their parenting. These findings suggest that a potential means of preventing behavior problems in minority children born to adolescent mothers is to identify mothers who have been directly exposed to violence and treat their depressive symptoms and aggressive behaviors.

How does violence exposure affect the psychological health and parenting of young African-American mothers?

Urban, minority, adolescent mothers are particularly vulnerable to violence exposure, which may increase their children's developmental risk through maternal depression and negative parenting. The current study tests a conceptual model of the effects of community and contextual violence exposure on the mental health and parenting of young, African-American mothers living in Washington, DC. A path analysis revealed significant direct effects of witnessed and experienced violence on mothers' depressive symptoms and general aggression. Experiences of discrimination were also associated with increased depressive symptoms. Moreover, there were significant indirect effects of mothers' violence exposure on disciplinary practices through depression and aggression. These findings highlight the range of violence young African-American mothers are exposed to and how these experiences affect their mental health, particularly depressive symptoms, and thus disciplinary practices.

Young African American mothers' changing perceptions of their infants during the transition to parenthood.

Although theory and empirical research with middle-class, mostly White women have suggested that motherhood is an important developmental transition for women, rarely have investigations of adolescent motherhood systematically examined developmental change. This study examines one aspect of change during the transition to parenthood: the mother's emerging perception of her infant. During pregnancy and at 4 months' postpartum, 220 urban African American mothers between the ages of 13 and 21 years were asked to describe their infants. Content analysis of their responses and ratings of the affective tone of the responses suggest that there are changes from pregnancy to 4 months after the birth that parallel shifts noted in literature on women going through the transition to motherhood as adults. Between pregnancy and 4 months, there was a decreasing focus on infant health and physical appearance and an increasing focus on infant behavioral achievements and personality characteristics. Of particular importance to mothers was that their infants be "good" babies who were easy to care for and were easily accepted by the family. Mothers imagined physical similarities with their infants during pregnancy and describe aspects of their interaction and emotional bond with their infants at 4 months. Overall, mothers' descriptions of their babies were quite positive, increasingly positive over time, and offered little evidence that for these young African American women the transition to parenthood was problematic.

Exploring Gender Differences in the Association Between Young African American Mothers' Reports of Preschoolers' Violence Exposure and Problem Behavior

The prevalence of children's violence exposure, particularly among ethnic minorities living in urban areas, is troubling. Gender differences in the rates and effects of violence exposure on behavior have been found for older children, and the current study extends this research to preschool-age children. We draw on data collected from a sample of 3- to 5-year-olds born to 230 adolescent African American mothers living in Washington, DC. Girls and boys were exposed to comparable levels of witnessed and directly experienced violence. In contrast to findings from studies of older children, preschool-age boys' and girls' externalizing and internalizing behavior were comparably associated with directly experienced and witnessed violence. These findings highlight the importance of further developmental research to differentiate the effects of violence exposure as children grow older.

Violence Exposure and the Association Between Young African American Mothers' Discipline and Child Problem Behavior

Children of adolescent mothers are at increased risk of violence exposure and behavior problems, which have been linked to mothers' disciplinary practices. This study examines how the effect of young African American mothers' discipline on their preschool-age children's externalizing and internalizing behavior varies by mother and child violence exposure. A sample of 230 African American mothers who gave birth as adolescents and their 3- to 6-year-old children were recruited from community-based day care and primary health care sites in the Washington, DC, metropolitan region. In-person interviews were conducted by trained research assistants who administered standard survey instruments. Hierarchical regression models revealed an interaction effect such that adolescent mothers' harsh disciplinary practices, specifically physical discipline strategies, were positively associated with young children's internalizing and externalizing behavior in the context of high or moderate, but not low, maternal violence exposure. Compared with less violence-exposed mothers, the harsh disciplinary practices of young African American mothers who have been exposed to high levels of violence are more strongly associated with their children's problem behavior. Practitioners should screen mothers for violence exposure in order to address potential issues of discipline and behavior problems.

An American Dilemma

ABSTRACT This study investigates the relationship between African American teenage childbearing and both chronic and concentrated poverty. It considers the city of Chicago, Illinois that has a substantial Black population and discernable inner-city communities, and in which economic conditions did not improve over several decades. Results of the study indicate that welfare reform had a negative impact in worsening the economic circumstance of Black teen mothers. Several demographic variables are used as control variables such as ethnic and immigrant populations. Health status is also considered as a possible barrier to employment and income. Educational achievement, at least high school completion was not a deterrent to the impoverishment of young African American mothers.

Talking about corporal punishment: nine low-income African American mothers’ perspectives

Qualitative interviews conducted over the course of 5 years with nine young low-income African American mothers were analyzed in order to gain understanding of their perspectives on corporal punishment. All used corporal punishment with their children. Results pertain to the vocabulary mothers used to describe corporal punishment ( pop, tap, whup, spank, hit, and smack), the circumstances in which different levels of corporal punishment were used, the criteria mothers used when deciding whom to allow to administer corporal punishment to their children, and the reasons they supported the use of (non-abusive) corporal punishment.

Broken Homes: The “Missing” Children of the 1910 Census

Progressive-era activists claimed that poverty led to broken homes: Impoverished parents—particularly single mothers—were compelled to place children in the care of relatives or institutions. The 1910 census asked all ever-married women how many of their children were alive on the census date. Many women had “missing” children; they reported having more than were living with them. Nearly 25 percent of white single mothers and more than 30 percent of African-American single mothers under age thirty-five had missing children, many of them likely in substitute care. Sizable fractions of young African-American married mothers and remarried mothers of both races also had missing children. The data indicate that placing children in substitute care was associated with limited household resources but was also related to the migration patterns of the period.