Young Adult Mental Health Research Articles

Adolescent dating violence and leader role occupancy

AbstractWho becomes a leader is of considerable importance to employees, organizations and society. Recently, researchers have considered whether early life events outside of the workplace affect who occupies leadership roles within organizations. Informed by the lifespan approach to leadership, and the work–home resources model, we investigate whether violence in adolescent dating relationships is associated with leader role occupancy in adulthood. We hypothesize that experiencing psychological aggression and physical violence indirectly lowers the likelihood of occupying a leadership role through depressive symptoms. Moreover, we hypothesize that the indirect effects will be weaker when parent–adolescent relationship quality is higher, when adolescents come from higher household incomes, and stronger for women. Drawing on four waves of ADD Health, results showed that experiencing early psychological aggression in dating relationships increased depressive symptoms, hindering leader role occupancy; however, this effect was buffered by income, and stronger for women. Experiencing physical violence exerted indirect negative effects on leader role occupancy via depressive symptoms, regardless of parent–adolescent relationship quality, income or gender. There were no direct effects of aggression or violence on leader role occupancy. Our findings suggest that early personal relationships can impact young adult's mental health, which in turn can influence leadership outcomes into adulthood.

Negative LGBTQ+ News Media Means Bad News for LGBTQ+ Young Adult Mental Health

Negative LGBTQ+ News Media Means Bad News for LGBTQ+ Young Adult Mental Health

Caught in the Crossfire: Ecuador’s Safety Crisis Impact on Teen and Young Adult Mental Health

Introduction: During the past decade, Ecuador has become one of the most dangerous countries in Latin America, with a significant rise in violence impacting mental health. This study investigates hospital admissions for mood disorders among adolescents and young adults in Ecuador from 2021 to 2022. Methods: We used public access data from the National Institute of Census and Statistics (INEC) to analyze hospital admissions for mood disorders in individuals aged 12 to 21, categorized using the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) codes F30 to F39. Results: Results show a female predominance in admissions, with a female-to-male ratio of 3:1 by 2022. Admissions for depressive episodes accounted for 66.5% of cases, peaking in 2022. The regions with the highest admission rates were the Galapagos Islands and Pichincha. A notable reduction in admissions was observed in 2020, likely due to the COVID-19 pandemic´s impact on healthcare access. Discussion: The study's findings highlight significant gender disparities, diagnostic trends and regional differences in mood disorder admissions. The increasing trend, particularly for depressive episodes, underscores the need for enhanced mental health resources. Conclusion: The study concludes that the escalation of violence in Ecuador significantly impacts mental health, emphasizing the urgency of addressing social determinants of health and focussing efforts on regions most affected by conflict.

A Prospective Examination of Mental Health Trajectories of Disaster-Exposed Young Adults in the COVID-19 Pandemic.

This longitudinal study examines young adult mental health (MH) trajectories after exposure to natural disasters (i.e., hurricanes, wildfires, mudslides) across four waves, two pre- and two during the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants (n = 205) answered questions about anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSSs) across Waves (Ws) s 1-4 and pre-pandemic factors (prior trauma history, disaster exposure, life stressors since disaster) at Wave (W) 1. Hierarchical linear modeling was conducted to examine MH trajectories and associations with pre-pandemic factors. Only the PTSS trajectory significantly differed across all Ws, with the largest increase between Ws 2 and 3 (pre- and during-pandemic time points). Prior trauma history and life stressors since the disaster were significantly associated with all MH trajectory intercepts but not growth rates.

The unequal impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on young adults' mental health. Predictors of vulnerability and resilience using longitudinal birth cohort data in the UK.

Previous studies have demonstrated deteriorations in young adult mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic, but evidence suggests heterogeneity in the mental health impacts of the pandemic. We sought to identify factors which may predict changes in psychological distress and wellbeing during the COVID-19 pandemic in UK young adults. A total of 2607 young adults from the Millennium Cohort Study were included. Psychological distress and mental wellbeing were measured using the Kessler-6 and Short Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale, respectively. Assessment occurred at three timepoints between the ages of 17-19: 2018/19 (pre-COVID Baseline), May 2020 (COVID Wave 1) and September/October 2020 (COVID Wave 2). Latent change score models were used to study change in distress and wellbeing across the study period, as well as the impact of sex, relative family poverty, parental education, preexisting mental health difficulties and perceived social support on these changes. The latent change score models suggested both distress and wellbeing tended to increase across the study period. Being female and in relative poverty predicted greater increases in distress and/or poorer wellbeing. Higher levels of parental education and greater perceived social support were protective against increased distress and associated with improved wellbeing. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on UK young adult mental health is complex. We provide further evidence for a distinction between symptoms of poor mental health and wellbeing. Research is urgently needed to assess the long-term impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on the mental health and wellbeing of young people, particularly in more vulnerable groups.

Depressive Symptoms in Adolescence and Young Adulthood

Depressive symptoms have increased among US adolescents since 2010. It remains unclear as to what extent this increase will persist into young adulthood, potentially turning the youth mental health crisis into a young adult mental health crisis. To test the association between birth cohort and adolescent depressive symptoms at ages 18, 19 to 20, and 21 to 22 years and changes in these symptoms by cohort. This panel cohort study analyzed data from the Monitoring the Future longitudinal survey from 1990 to 2019, including birth cohorts from 1972 to 2001. Survey respondents were recruited from US high schools in 12th grade and were approximately aged 18 years (at baseline) through age 21 to 22 years (during mail and web follow-up). Data analysis was conducted from April to October 2023. Depressive symptoms score (>12 vs ≤12, with >12 representing top-decile scores) on a scale examining affective items (eg, "Life often seems meaningless"). High (vs lower) depressive symptoms at ages 19 to 20 years and 21 to 22 years. The 36 552 respondents included 18 597 females (50.5%), and most reported having a parent who graduated from college (44.8%). Among females, 19.1% (95% CI, 16.7%-21.4%) of the most recent birth cohort (born: 1997-2001) had high depressive symptoms at age 18 years, higher than any previous birth cohort. While prevalence declined by age 21 to 22 years, it remained higher than previous cohorts at that age. Among males, 13.4% (95% CI, 11.2%-15.6%) of the most recent birth cohort had high depressive symptoms at age 18 years, and prevalence increased through young adulthood. Males with high baseline depressive symptoms had 10.24 (95% CI, 7.01-14.97) times the odds of symptoms at age 19 to 20 years and 6.20 (95% CI, 3.93-9.78) times the odds of symptoms at age 21 to 22 years. Females with high baseline depressive symptoms had 9.16 (95% CI, 6.57-12.76) times the odds of symptoms at age 19 to 20 years and 7.28 (95% CI, 4.92-10.78) times the odds of symptoms at age 21 to 22 years. The magnitude of the associations did not vary over time. Population attributable fractions indicated that the total proportion of young adult symptoms associated with depressive symptoms at age 18 years among females has increased; in the most recent birth cohort, 55.25% (95% CI, 38.11%-65.13%) of depressive symptoms at age 21 to 22 years were associated with symptoms at age 18 years. This panel cohort study found that increases in depressive symptoms in adolescence persisted into young adulthood, suggesting the need for primary prevention and mental health resources during the adolescent years.

Childhood and Adolescent Depression Symptoms and Young Adult Mental Health and Psychosocial Outcomes

Depression is a leading cause of disability. The timing and persistence of depression may be differentially associated with long-term mental health and psychosocial outcomes. To examine if depression symptoms during early and middle childhood and adolescence and persistent depression symptoms are associated with impaired young adult outcomes independent of early risk factors. Data for this prospective, longitudinal cohort study were from the Québec Longitudinal Study of Child Development, a representative population-based Canadian birth cohort. The cohort consists of infants born from October 1, 1997, to July 31, 1998. This is an ongoing study; data are collected annually or every 2 years and include those ages 5 months to 21 years. The end date for the data in this study was June 30, 2019, and data analyses were performed from October 4, 2022, to January 3, 2024. Depression symptoms were assessed using maternal reports in early childhood (ages 1.5 to 6 years) from 1999 to 2004, teacher reports in middle childhood (ages 7 to 12 years) from 2005 to 2010, and self-reports in adolescence (ages 13 to 17 years) from 2011 to 2015. The primary outcome was depression symptoms at age 20 years, and secondary outcomes were indicators of psychosocial functioning (binge drinking; perceived stress; not being in education, employment, or training; social support; and experiencing online harrasment) at age 21 years. All outcomes were self-reported. Adult outcomes were reported by participants at ages 20 and 21 years from 2017 to 2019. Risk factors assessed when children were aged 5 months old were considered as covariates to assess the independent associations of childhood and adolescent depression symptoms with adult outcomes. The cohort consisted of 2120 infants. The analytic sample size varied from 1118 to 1254 participants across outcomes (56.85% to 57.96% female). Concerning the primary outcome, adjusting for early risk factors and multiple testing, depression symptoms during adolescence were associated with higher levels of depression symptoms (β, 1.08 [95% CI, 0.84-1.32]; P < .001 unadjusted and Bonferroni adjusted) in young adulthood. Concerning the secondary outcomes, depression symptoms in adolescence were only associated with perceived stress (β, 3.63 [95% CI, 2.66-4.60]; P < .001 unadjusted and Bonferroni adjusted), while both middle-childhood (β, -1.58 [95% CI, -2.65 to -0.51]; P = .003 unadjusted and P < .001 Bonferroni adjusted) and adolescent (β, -1.97 [95% CI, -2.53 to -1.41]; P < .001 unadjusted and Bonferroni adjusted) depression symptoms were associated with lower levels of social support. There were no associations for binge drinking; not being in education, employment, or training; or experiencing online harrasment. In this cohort study of Canadian children and adolescents, childhood and adolescent depression symptoms were associated with impaired adult psychosocial functioning. Interventions should aim to screen and monitor children and adolescents for depression to inform policymaking regarding young adult mental health and psychosocial outcomes.

Young Adult Mental Health Problem Incidence Varies by Specific Combinations of Adverse Childhood Experiences

Young Adult Mental Health Problem Incidence Varies by Specific Combinations of Adverse Childhood Experiences

Young adult mental health during the United Kingdom’s first COVID-19 lockdown: the benefit of living with parents and siblings

ABSTRACT UK young adults saw sharp mental health declines during the COVID-19 pandemic. This paper examines whether living with siblings helped moderate this negative effect. We compare the outcomes of young adults (age 19), i) who were living with parents and siblings, with ii) those who were living with only parents, and iii) with those who were living away from parents. We used data from the Millennium Cohort Study COVID-19 survey, linked with the mainstage survey (N = 2,578), and captured mental health with: the Shortened Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale and the Kessler-6 Psychological Distress scale. As young men and women may be differently affected by sibling co-residence, we vary living arrangements effects by gender. While average young adult mental health deteriorated during the first national lockdown, there were variations by gender and living arrangements. For young men, living with siblings was associated with improved mental health on both measures during the first COVID-19 lockdown. For young women, living with parents was associated with lower psychological distress than living away from home, but siblings provided no additional benefit. Data from later in the pandemic suggests that, as young adults became more accustomed to social restrictions, the importance of family living arrangements declined.

A case study in developmental discontinuity: PROSPER Interventions and adolescent substance use trajectories shape young adult substance use and mental health problems.

The loss of John Schulenberg reverberates across the developmental and prevention sciences. In honor of his many contributions, this paper applies his ideas of developmental continuity and discontinuity to understand the process by which PROSPER delivered universal prevention programs (delivered in Grades 6 and 7) affect young adult outcomes. Guided by these developmental models, we deconstructed adolescent substance use initiation trajectories into two discrete phases-early and late adolescence, demarcated by substance use initiation levels at the end of 9th grade. We evaluated the effects of PROSPER interventions on these phases, and in turn, the effects of adolescent substance use initiation on young adult antisocial behavior, alcohol and drug use consequences, and depression symptoms. This sample included 1,984 young adults who participated in the PROSPER intervention trial in Grade 6 (two cohorts, 2002 and 2003), followed over 8 adolescent measurement occasions (Fall and Spring of Grade 6; Spring of Grades 7-12). Young adult outcomes were averaged across three waves (collected at ages 20, 23, and 25). PROSPER interventions were associated with reduced substance use initiation in early adolescence, but not escalation during late adolescence. In turn, substance use in both early and late adolescence was uniquely associated with young adult antisocial behavior, depression symptoms, and substance use consequences. PROSPER interventions were associated with young adult antisocial behavior and problematic substance use via reduced risk for early initiation status. Findings are discussed in terms of developmental continuity and discontinuity.

Relational Complexity of the Near-Age Peer Support Provider Role in Youth and Young Adult Community Mental Health Settings.

Increasingly, US community mental health settings are integrating professional near-age youth peer support providers to improve youth service engagement and outcomes. Youth peer specialists (YPS) use their lived and living experiences with a mental health diagnosis to validate, empathize, and provide individualized support, while also improving their program's overall responsiveness to young people's needs. Although promising, these roles tend to lack clarity-responsibilities vary immensely, and turnover is high. Examining near-age youth peer on-the-job experiences is needed to design effective on-the-job supports. Using community-based participatory action research methods, young adults with lived experience worked in partnership with a PhD-level qualitative researcher to design, recruit, conduct, and analyze in-depth-interviews with current and former near-age youth peer providers. Ten young adult peer mentors in Massachusetts completed interviews that revealed near-age youth peer role relational complexity. Five relational aspects were identified requiring relational practice skills and self-awareness, including relationships with (1) self, (2) clients, (3) supervisors, (4) non-peer colleagues, and (5) other near-age peer providers. Near-age peers experience relationship-related struggles with non-peer identified colleagues who do not understand nor value the near-age peer role. Findings expand on current near-age peer practice and associated on-the-job challenges. Training, supervision, and professional development activities that target these five relational areas may improve YPS on-the-job wellbeing, decrease YPS turnover, and improve youth client outcomes.

Adolescent School Belonging and Mental Health Outcomes in Young Adulthood: Findings from a Multi-wave Prospective Cohort Study

School belonging, sometimes referred to as school belonging or school connectedness, involves dimensions like positive affect towards school, relationships with teachers, and feeling socially valued. Previous research points to immediate benefits for students’ mental health and wellbeing; however, evidence on the potential long-term benefits of school belonging for mental health—once young people leave the school setting—is limited. This study used data on 1568 adults from the Australian Temperament Project (ATP), a 16-wave longitudinal study which has tracked participants since infancy. The short form of the Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER) School Life Questionnaire was used to assess secondary school belonging at age 15–16 years whilst young adult mental health symptoms were evaluated using the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scales (DASS-21) at 19–20, 23–24, and 27–28 years. Generalised Estimating Equation models were used to examine the link between secondary school belonging and mental health symptoms in young adulthood. Results showed that higher levels of all aspects of school belonging were associated with lower mental health symptoms across young adulthood (β range − 0.05 to − 0.20). Associations were similar by gender. These findings underscore the importance of adolescent school belonging and in particular school status in reference to feeling socially valued, as a long-term protective factor that can mitigate against later depression, anxiety, and stress.

Sociocultural Risk and Resilience in the Context of Adverse Childhood Experiences

Knowledge about childhood resilience factors relevant in circumstances of marginalization and high numbers of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) can improve interventions. To identify sociocultural resilience factors in childhood that are associated with better young adult mental health in the context of ACEs. This cohort study examined 4 waves of data from the Boricua Youth Study, which included Puerto Rican children from the South Bronx, New York, and San Juan, Puerto Rico. Participants were aged 5 to 17 years at waves 1 through 3 (2000-2003) and aged 15 to 29 years at wave 4 (2013-2017). Linear and logistic regression models tested the associations of 7 childhood resilience factors and their interaction with ACEs on young adult mental health outcomes. Data were analyzed from June 2021 to October 2023. Perceived stress, major depressive disorder and/or generalized anxiety disorder (MDD/GAD), and substance use disorder (SUD) in young adulthood. Among a total 2004 participants, the mean (SD) age at wave 4 was 22.4 (2.9) years; 1024 participants (51.1%) were female, and 980 (48.9%) were male. Positive parent-child relationships and nonparental adult support during childhood were associated with both lower perceived stress (β = -0.14; SE = 0.02; P < .001; β = -0.08; SE = 0.03; P = .003, respectively) and lower odds of MDD/GAD (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 0.84; 95% CI, 0.73 to 0.97; aOR = 0.81; 95% CI, 0.69 to 0.95, respectively) in young adulthood. Maternal warmth reported during childhood was also associated with lower young adult perceived stress (β = -0.11; SE = 0.02; P < .001). None of the resilience factors were associated with SUD. The resilience factors familism, friendships, and family religiosity were not associated with any of the mental health outcomes. ACEs were associated with poorer mental health outcomes; however, none of the resilience factors exhibited interactions consistent with being protective for ACEs. Unexpectedly, higher family religiosity was associated with more perceived stress in the presence of higher ACEs. The results of this study suggest that promoting positive relationships with adults during childhood may reduce later young adulthood stress and MDD/GAD. However, there is still a need to identify sociocultural childhood protective factors for ACEs. Caution should be taken in assuming what resilience factors are relevant for a given group, as higher family religiosity (one postulated resilience factor) was unexpectedly associated with a stronger, rather than a weaker, association between ACEs and perceived stress in young adulthood.

Examining the interplay between resilience, mental health and young adults: insights from bibliometric analysis on historical, contemporary and future trends

Purpose This study aims to conduct a complete bibliometric analysis of published research to develop a solid roadmap for future research into developing young adults’ mental health and resilience and to further the body of knowledge and scientific advancement in this area. Design/methodology/approach A literature search using VOSviewer, through Web of Science, was conducted to identify young adult mental health and resilience studies. A total of 226 studies were identified between 1993 and the end of June 2022, as the number of published studies increased. Extracted data included citation, co-citation, keyword and co-word analyses. Findings This study evaluates the current knowledge structure of young adult mental health and resilience through co-citation analysis and discovers the directions and trends of popular topics in young adult mental health and resilience through co-word analysis. It suggests that legislators and physicians should aim to provide social support via screening and interventions, especially for young adults struggling with disruption in their social lives. Originality/value Using a bibliometric approach, the findings provide a robust roadmap for further investigation into young adult mental health and resilience evolution. This method will further advance the knowledge and progress of this field, as this research is the first attempt at doing so – to the best of the authors’ knowledge.

College Students’ prescription drug misuse over time and links with their mental health and well-being

Prescription drug misuse (PDM) is a mounting public health concern in the U.S., particularly among college students. The field’s reliance on cross-sectional designs and limited controls for other substance use has failed to capture the specific role of misuse for longer-term health. Therefore, the present study tested associations between trajectories of PDM problems and college students’ mental health and subjective happiness over time. Participants were 300 students who completed a baseline assessment (T1) and follow-ups every 6 months for two years (T2-T5). Participants self-reported problems associated with PDM and mental health. Results from univariate latent growth models indicated that problems with PDM were initially on an increasing trajectory. Based on parallel process models, problems with PDM were concurrently associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms, disinhibition, callousness/aggression, and lower levels of subjective happiness at T1. Further, we found support for parallel trajectories between PDM problems and both depressive symptoms and general disinhibition. Participants whose PDM problems were on an increasing (worsening) trajectory at baseline showed an increase in depressive symptoms and general disinhibition over the next two years. Participants whose PDM problems accelerated over time (got worse at a faster and faster rate over time) also showed a significant increase in their depressive symptoms over time. Most findings, however, were no longer statistically significant in sensitivity analyses that controlled for alcohol and other drug problems. Findings highlight college as an important time for interventions to prevent substance use and its associated negative consequence on later young adult mental health.

Trajectories of financial distress during the COVID-19 pandemic and their associations with mental health and substance use outcomes in a cohort of young adults.

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to unprecedented life disruptions among young adults, including increased job insecurity and financial strain. Mental health problems and substance use have also increased during the pandemic, with young adults particularly vulnerable to experiencing these challenges. This study examines trajectories of financial distress among young adults during the pandemic and their associations with depression, anxiety, and hazardous alcohol and cannabis use. Data from 473 young adults (ages 22-29) recruited in the Northwest United States were collected from April/May 2020 to July/August 2021. Financial distress trajectories were identified using growth mixture modeling. Negative binomial models were used to examine associations between financial distress trajectories and distal outcomes of depression, anxiety, alcohol, and cannabis use. Three distinct trajectories were identified, revealing Low, Moderate, and High financial distress experiences. Individuals with "Moderate" and "High" trajectories showed significantly greater depressive and anxiety symptom scores compared with those in the "Low" financial distress trajectory group. Trajectories were not associated with subsequent levels of alcohol or cannabis use. Young adult mental health remains a priority during periods of economic downturn. Providers must be aware of the psychological challenges imposed by financial distress among young adults to address worsening mental health symptoms.

Parental warmth and young adult depression: A comparison of enduring effects and revisionist models.

Guided by a novel analytic framework, this study investigates the developmental mechanism through which parental warmth is related to young adult depression. Data were from a large sample of participants followed from early adolescence to young adulthood (N = 1,988; 54% female). Using structural equation modeling, we estimated and compared competing developmental models - enduring effects vs. revisionist models - to assess whether parental warmth during adolescence had enduring or transient effects on depression in young adulthood. We also examined whether contemporaneous experiences of parental warmth in young adulthood were more salient than parental warmth in adolescence. Results supported the revisionist model: early intergenerational experiences in adolescence predicted psychopathology early in young adulthood, but their unique effects gradually diminished; whereas parental warmth in young adulthood continued to be protective of young adult depression. Effects of mother and father warmth on young adult depression were similar in pattern and magnitude. Results were held when accounting for covariates such as adolescent sex, family income status, and family structure. Young adult mental health interventions may consider targeting maintenance or improvement in parental warmth to help offset the long-term impact of adversity early in life.

Maternal Adverse Childhood Experiences and Young Adult Latino Children's Mental Health

Maternal adverse childhood experiences have been linked to a variety of negative health outcomes in young children; however, young adults and, specifically, young adult Latinos have been vastly understudied. This study investigates the intergenerational pathway between maternal adverse childhood experiences and behavioral health outcomes of their young adult children, as mediated through young adults' own adverse childhood experiences and maternal depression. Structural equation modeling was used to analyze data (in 2023) from mothers and their young adult children (n=398 dyads) enrolled in the Center for the Health Assessment of Mothers and Children of Salinas cohort, a primarily Latino agricultural sample. Maternal and young adult adverse childhood experiences were self-reported retrospectively during a visit at the age of 18 years (2018-2020). Young adult- and maternal-reported internalizing and maternal-reported externalizing behaviors were assessed at the age of 18 years with the Behavior Assessment for Children, second edition. Maternal depression was assessed during a visit at the age of 9 years (2010-2012) using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale. Maternal and young adult adverse childhood experiences were weakly but statistically significantly correlated (r=0.22). Maternal adverse childhood experiences were statistically significantly associated with maternal-reported youth internalizing symptoms (β=0.29; 95% CI=0.19, 0.38; p<0.001) and externalizing symptoms (β=0.24; 95% CI=0.14, 0.33; p<0.001) and marginally associated with youth-reported internalizing symptoms (β=0.08; 95% CI= -0.02, 0.18; p=0.13). Youth adverse childhood experiences and maternal depressive symptomatology mediated the associations between maternal adverse childhood experiences and young adult outcomes. Findings demonstrate the potential impacts of adversity across generations in Latino immigrant families, an understudied population. Understanding the mechanisms and factors associated with these pathways may lead to strategies that prevent poor mental health outcomes in young adults.

Factors and Effects of High School Sport Participation on Young Adult Physical, Mental, and Social Health

Factors and Effects of High School Sport Participation on Young Adult Physical, Mental, and Social Health

The benefit and limitations of an online physical activity program in response to the COVID-19 pandemic: A quantitative analysis of the virtual Latrobe Streetgames program.

The COVID-19 pandemic led to the closure of many physical activity programs, with many online programs being created in place to maintain physical activity engagement. This study explored the outcomes of an online physical program on its participants. A validated survey was used to explore Virtual Streetgames (VSG) participants' perceptions about their physical, mental, and social health while participating in VGS. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to evaluate the impact of the online format. Many VSG participants were not achieving their daily physical activity recommendations, with a considerable portion of individuals feeling frustrated at not being able to socialise. A substantial difference was seen between adults and adolescents, with increased adult activity rates for those adults participating in VSG. Despite this influence on physical well-being, VSG did not seem to influence mental or social wellbeing. The results give detail into how the COVID-19 pandemic has influenced adolescent and young adult physical, mental, and social health, noting that the reduction of in-person contact influenced motivation for exercise. Online physical activity programs may have some positive impact in improving adult physical activity rates, but they are not as effective as face-to-face programs in improving overall well-being. SO WHAT?: The findings of this study suggest that online physical activity programs may not be as effective as face-to-face programs in improving overall well-being. Future research should explore ways to improve the social and motivational aspects of online physical activity programs to maximise their benefits for participants.